周杰伦音乐作品列表

周杰伦音乐作品列表 Jay Chou in Seoul.jpg 录音室专辑 14 现场专辑 6 合辑 1 音乐视频 65 迷你专辑 4 原声专辑 2 本列表主要介绍台湾歌手周杰伦专辑发行、歌曲信息[1]、派台单曲成绩。1997年，他因参加TVBS-G电视台选秀节目《超级新人王》获得年度亚军而被当时阿尔发音乐总经理吴宗宪发掘。2000年发行首张同名专辑《Jay》出道，之后除了2009年和2013年之外，每一年都会发行一张专辑。 2004年，周杰伦发行了他的第5张个人专辑《七里香》，据国际唱片业协会统计，这张专辑在全球销量年度排名第42名，[2] 同时周杰伦也凭借该专辑第一次获得世界音乐大奖“大中华区最畅销艺人”奖，之后2006年《依然范特西》、2007年《我很忙》、2008年《魔杰座》连续三年获得该奖。[3] 2007年，他与方文山、杨峻荣共同建立唱片公司杰威尔音乐，与阿尔发音乐一样，专辑由台湾索尼音乐娱乐代理发行。 2012年，截止他的第12张个人专辑《12新作》发行，其专辑在中国大陆地区销量共计2400万张。[4] 目录 1 专辑 1.1 录音室专辑 1.2 现场录音专辑 1.3 EP 1.4 原声带 1.5 合辑 2 单曲 2.1 参加歌曲 3 音乐录影带 4 派台歌曲成绩（香港地区） 5 参考资料 专辑 录音室专辑 # 名称 发行时间 制作公司 发行公司 销量 曲目 1 Jay 2000年11月7日 阿尔发音乐 博德曼音乐 35万 ★ 可爱女人 完美主义 星晴 娘子 斗牛 黑色幽默 伊斯坦堡 印地安老斑鸠 龙卷风 反方向的钟 2 范特西 2001年9月14日 40万/全亚洲170万[5] ★ 爱在西元前（电视剧《丑女大翻身》片头曲） 爸 我回来了 简单爱 忍者 开不了口 上海 一九四三（电视剧《丑女大翻身》片尾曲） 对不起 威廉古堡 双截棍（电影《青蜂侠》片尾曲） 安静 3 八度空间 2002年7月18日 40万/全亚洲280万 ★ 半兽人 半岛铁盒 暗号 龙拳 火车叨位去 分裂 爷爷泡的茶 回到过去 米兰的小铁匠 最后的战役 4 叶惠美 2003年7月31日 新力音乐 35万/全亚洲300万 ★ 以父之名 懦夫 晴天 三年二班 东风破 你听得到 同一种调调 她的睫毛 爱情悬崖 梯田 双刀 5 七里香 2004年8月3日 32万/全亚洲320万 ★ 我的地盘 七里香 借口 外婆（Feat. 张欣瑜） 将军 搁浅 乱舞春秋 困兽之斗 园游会 止战之殇 6 11月的萧邦 2005年11月1日 新力博德曼 30万/全亚洲250万[6] ★ 夜曲 蓝色风暴 发如雪 黑色毛衣 四面楚歌 枫 浪漫手机 逆鳞 麦芽糖 珊瑚海（Feat. 梁心颐） 飘移（Bonus Track；电影《头文字Ｄ》主题曲） 一路向北（Bonus Track；电影《头文字Ｄ》插曲） 7 依然范特西 2006年9月5日 25万/全亚洲300万[7] ★ 夜的第七章 听妈妈的话 千里之外（Feat. 费玉清） 本草纲目 退后 红模仿 心雨 白色风车 迷迭香 菊花台（电影《满城尽带黄金甲》片尾曲） 8 我很忙 2007年11月2日 杰威尔音乐 14万/全亚洲200万 ★ 牛仔很忙（电影《名嘴出任务》插曲） 彩虹（电影《命运呼叫转移》片尾曲） 青花瓷 阳光宅男（电影《爱情无全顺》片头／片尾曲） 蒲公英的约定 无双 我不配 扯 甜甜的 最长的电影 9 魔杰座 2008年10月14日 16万/全亚洲150万 ★ 龙战骑士 给我一首歌的时间 蛇舞（Feat. 梁心颐） 花海 魔术先生 说好的幸福呢 兰亭序 流浪诗人（Feat. 杨瑞代） 时光机 乔克叔叔 稻香（首播主打） 10 跨时代 2010年5月18日 索尼音乐娱乐 12万/全亚洲140万 ★ 跨时代 说了再见（电影《海洋天堂》主题曲） 烟花易冷 免费教学录像带 好久不见 雨下一整晚（第二波主打） 嘻哈空姐 我落泪·情绪零碎 爱的飞行日记（Feat. 杨瑞代） 自导自演 超人不会飞（首播主打） 11 惊叹号 2011年11月11日 10万/全亚洲110万 ★ 惊叹号（首播主打） 迷魂曲 Mine Mine（第二波主打） 公主病 你好吗 疗伤烧肉粽 琴伤 水手怕水 世界未末日 皮影戏 超跑女神 12 12新作 2012年12月28日 全亚洲预购20万 ★ 四季列车 手语 公公偏头痛（电影《出神入化２》插曲） 明明就（第二波主打） 傻笑（Feat. 袁咏琳） 比较大的大提琴（合唱：梁心颐、杨瑞代） 爱你没差 红尘客栈（首播主打） 梦想启动 大笨钟 哪里都是你（电影《天台》主题曲） 乌克丽丽 13 哎呦，不错哦 2014年12月26日 全台湾预购7.2万 ★ 阳明山 窃爱 算什么男人（第二波主打） 天涯过客 怎么了（Feat. 袁咏琳） 一口气全念对 我要夏天（Feat. 杨瑞代） 手写的从前 鞋子特大号（首播主打；电影《出神入化2》插曲） 听爸爸的话 美人鱼 听见下雨的声音（Bonus Track；原唱：魏如昀） 14 周杰伦的床边故事 2016年6月24日 四大平台销量100万 ★ 床边故事（首播主打） 说走就走 一点点 前世情人 英雄 (《英雄联盟》游戏主题曲) 不该 （Feat. aMEI） 土耳其冰淇淋 告白气球 Now You See Me （第二波主打；电影《出神入化2》国际主题曲） 爱情废柴 15 十五号台风 预计2022年 ★ 洛神赋图 大男孩 Masala 白衣 15号台风 告别式 奶爸来了 记忆邮差 周游记 高手 等你下课（Feat. 杨瑞代） 不爱我就拉倒 说好不哭(Feat. 五月天阿信) 我是如此相信(电影《天火》主题曲) Mojito 现场录音专辑 # 名称 发行时间 附注 曲目 1 《周杰伦2002The One演唱会》 2002年10月25日 2CD+1DVD版收录演唱会现场曲目及《八度空间》全碟10首单曲录像带，2DVD版收录演唱会实况。 2CD+1DVD CD 1 OPENING-双截棍(变奏版) 　 忍者 　 爷爷泡的荼(加长版) 　 暗号 　 爱在西元前 　 半岛铁盒 　 回到过去 　 斗牛 　 分裂 　 安静 　 黑色幽默 　 CD 2 找自己 　 龙卷风 　 星晴 　 龙拳 　 上海一九四三 　 你怎么连话都说不清楚 　 最后的战役 　 简单爱 　 开不了口 　 DVD 半兽人 MV 　 半岛铁盒 MV 　 暗号 MV 　 龙拳 MV 　 火车叨位去 MV 　 分裂 MV 　 爷爷泡的茶 MV 　 回到过去 MV 　 米兰的小铁匠 MV 　 最后的战役 MV 2DVD DVD1 开演倒数花絮 双截棍 半兽人 忍者 爷爷泡的茶 暗号 爸 我回来了 威廉古堡 爱在西元前 半岛铁盒 回到过去 斗牛 分裂 DVD2 安静 黑色幽默 找自己 龙卷风 星晴 龙拳 你怎么连话都说不清楚 最后的战役 简单爱/开不了口 The One筹备幕后秘辛 2 《周杰伦2004无与伦比演唱会》 2005年1月21日 2CD+1DVD版收录演唱会现场曲目及《七里香》全碟10首单曲录像带，DVD版收录演唱会实况。 2CD+1DVD CD 1 以父之名 止战之殇 她的睫毛 晴天 你听的到 梯田+爸 我回来的 园游会 龙卷风 将军 乱舞春秋 星晴+回到过去+最后的战役+爱我别走 我的地盘 爱情悬崖 CD 2 搁浅 借口 瓦解 双刀+双截棍+龙拳 困兽之斗 倒带 简单爱 七里香 外婆 断了的弦 东风破 轨迹 DVD 我的地盘 MV 七里香 MV 借口 MV 外婆 MV 将军 MV 搁浅 MV 乱舞春秋 MV 困兽之斗 MV 园游会 MV 止战之殇 MV DVD 以父之名 止战之殇 她的睫毛 晴天 你听的到 梯田+爸 我回来了 园游会 龙卷风 将军 乱舞春秋 星晴+回到过去+最后的战役+爱我别走 我的地盘 香草把噗（演唱：南拳妈妈） 小时候（合唱：南拳妈妈） 爱情悬崖 搁浅 借口 瓦解 祝我生日快乐（合唱：温岚） 人来疯（演唱：温岚） 双刀+双截棍+龙拳 困兽之斗 倒带 简单爱 七里香 外婆 断了的弦 东风破 轨迹 BONUS:演唱会精彩花絮.幕后花絮.乐手介绍.百万动画.小时候VCR 3 《周杰伦2007世界巡回演唱会》 2008年1月30日 收录演唱会实况及演唱会现场演出曲目， 特别收录电影《功夫灌篮》主题曲《周大侠》。 ★ CD 1 黄金甲 无双 不能说的秘密 退后 甜甜的 最长的电影 蒲公英的约定 白色风车 菊花台 麦芽糖 牛仔很忙 听妈妈的话（合唱：潘玮柏） CD 2 本草纲目（合唱：柯有纶） 千里之外（合唱：费玉清） 夜曲 迷迭香 阳光宅男 发如雪 霍元甲 双截棍 周大侠（合唱：杜国璋） DVD 黄金甲 无双 不能说的秘密 甜甜的 最长的电影 蒲公英的约定 白色风车 菊花台 呛（合唱：詹宇豪） 麦芽糖 牛仔很忙 听妈妈的话（合唱：潘玮柏） 玩酷（演唱：潘玮柏） 本草纲目（合唱：柯有纶） 千里之外（合唱：费玉清） 夜曲 迷迭香 阳光宅男 发如雪 霍元甲 双截棍 乐手介绍影片 幕后花絮 周大侠 MV 4 《周杰伦2010超时代演唱会》 2011年1月25日 收录演唱会实况及演唱会现场演出曲目。 ☆ CD 1 龙战骑士 跨时代 蛇舞（合唱：梁心颐） 爱在西元前 我不配 嘻哈空姐 威廉古堡 魔术先生 黑色幽默（合唱：袁咏琳） 想你就写信（演唱：浪花兄弟） 你是我的OK绷（合唱：浪花兄弟） 稻香 阳光宅男 龙卷风 说好的幸福呢+淘汰+青花瓷 CD 2 免费教学录影带 时光机 爸 我回来了+心事谁人知 雨下一整晚 爱的飞行日记（合唱：杨瑞代） 以父之名 开不了口 东风破 双截棍 DVD OPENING 龙战骑士 跨时代 蛇舞（合唱：梁心颐） 爱在西元前 我不配 嘻哈空姐 威廉古堡 魔术先生 黑色幽默（合唱：袁咏琳） 想你就写信（演唱：浪花兄弟） 你是我的OK绷（演唱：浪花兄弟） 稻香 阳光宅男 龙卷风 说好的幸福呢+淘汰+青花瓷 免费教学录影带 时光机 爸 我回来了+心事谁人知 雨下一整晚 爱的飞行日记 超人VCR 以父之名 开不了口 给我一首歌的时间（特别来宾：蔡依林） 东风破 双截棍 BONUS:特别收录—幕后花絮 5 《周杰伦2013魔天伦演唱会》 2016年5月10日 收录演唱会实况及演唱会现场演出曲目。 ★ CD 1 惊叹号 龙拳 最后的战役 天台 （with 宋健彰） 比较大的大提琴（with 袁咏琳、邱凯伟、杨瑞代、宋健彰） 快门慢舞（袁咏琳、邱凯伟） 打架舞（with 宋健彰、邱凯伟） 哪里都是你 一路向北 不能说的秘密 双截棍 CD 2 明明就 Mine Mine 龙卷风 公公偏头痛 青花瓷 斗牛＋水手怕水＋大笨钟 彩虹＋轨迹 手语 开不了口 乌克丽丽 阳光宅男（with 袁咏琳、邱凯伟、杨瑞代、宋健彰） DVD Opening 惊叹号 龙拳 最后的战役 天台 （with 宋健彰） 比较大的大提琴（with 袁咏琳、邱凯伟、杨瑞代、宋健彰） 快门慢舞（袁咏琳、邱凯伟） 打架舞（with 宋健彰、邱凯伟） 哪里都是你 一路向北 不能说的秘密 双截棍 明明就 Mine Mine 龙卷风 公公偏头痛 青花瓷 斗牛＋水手怕水＋大笨钟 彩虹＋轨迹 手语 开不了口 乌克丽丽 阳光宅男（with 袁咏琳、邱凯伟、杨瑞代、宋健彰） 6 《周杰伦2017地表最强演唱会》 2019年11月1日 收录演唱会实况及演唱会现场演出曲目。 ☆ DVD 英雄 双截棍 开不了口 床边故事（feat. 杨瑞代、宋健彰） 夜曲＋窃爱 以父之名（feat. 杨瑞代、宋健彰） 美人鱼 我要夏天（with 派伟俊） 我的时代（派伟俊） 晴天 稻香 青花瓷 爱的飞行日记（杨瑞代） 枫＋退后＋搁浅（宋健彰） 爸我回来了 鞋子特大号 半岛铁盒 印地安老斑鸠 大笨钟＋暗号＋彩虹＋龙卷风 土耳其冰淇淋 Now You See Me（with 麦烝玮） 告白气球 爷爷泡的茶（with 派伟俊、麦烝玮、杨瑞代、宋健彰） 七里香（with 派伟俊、麦烝玮、杨瑞代、宋健彰） 说走就走（with 派伟俊、麦烝玮、杨瑞代、宋健彰） BD 英雄 双截棍 开不了口 床边故事（feat. 杨瑞代、宋健彰） 夜曲＋窃爱 以父之名（feat. 杨瑞代、宋健彰） 美人鱼 我要夏天（with 派伟俊） 我的时代（派伟俊） 晴天 稻香 青花瓷 爱的飞行日记（杨瑞代） 枫＋退后＋搁浅（宋健彰） 爸我回来了 鞋子特大号 半岛铁盒 印地安老斑鸠 大笨钟＋暗号＋彩虹＋龙卷风 土耳其冰淇淋 Now You See Me（with 麦烝玮） 告白气球 爷爷泡的茶（with 派伟俊、麦烝玮、杨瑞代、宋健彰） 七里香（with 派伟俊、麦烝玮、杨瑞代、宋健彰） 说走就走（with 派伟俊、麦烝玮、杨瑞代、宋健彰） EP # 名称 发行时间 附注 曲目 1 《FANTASY PLUS》 2001年12月24日 即《范特西EP》，包括《范特西》全碟10首单曲录像带及《FANTASY PLUS》全碟3首演唱会单曲录像带。 ★ CD 蜗牛 你比从前快乐 世界末日 DVD 爱在西元前 MV 爸 我回来了 MV 简单爱 MV 忍者 MV 开不了口 MV 上海 一九四三 MV 对不起 MV 威廉古堡 MV 双截棍 MV 安静 MV 蜗牛 MV 你比从前快乐 MV 世界末日 MV 2 《寻找周杰伦EP》 2003年11月12日 包括电影《寻找周杰伦》主题曲《轨迹》、插曲《断了的弦》及《叶惠美》全碟11首单曲录像带。 ☆ CD 轨迹 断了的弦 轨迹 KALA 断了的弦 KALA DVD 以父之名 MV 懦夫 MV 晴天 MV 三年二班 MV 东风破 MV 你听的到 MV 同一种调调 MV 她的睫毛 MV 爱情悬崖 MV 梯田 MV 双刀 MV 3 《霍元甲EP》 2006年1月20日 包括电影《霍元甲》同名主题曲录像带及《11月的萧邦》全碟13首单曲录像带。 ★ CD 霍元甲 献世（粤语Live版） DVD 霍元甲 MV 夜曲 MV 蓝色风暴 MV 发如雪 MV 黑色毛衣 MV 四面楚歌 MV 枫 MV 浪漫手机 MV 逆鳞 MV 麦芽糖 MV 珊瑚海 MV 漂移 MV 一路向北 MV 周杰伦红磡演唱会精彩影音剪辑 4 《黄金甲EP》 2006年12月8日 包括电影《满城尽带黄金甲》主题曲《黄金甲》录像带及《依然范特西》全碟10首单曲录像带。 ☆ CD 黄金甲 菊花台（杰伦钢琴演奏版） DVD 黄金甲 MV 夜的第七章 MV 听妈妈的话 MV 千里之外 MV 本草纲目 MV 退后 MV 红模仿 MV 心雨 MV 白色风车 MV 迷迭香 MV 菊花台 MV 原声带 # 名称 发行时间 曲目 1 《不能说的秘密电影原声带》 2007年8月13日 ★ Opening 脚踏车 早操 淡水海边 斗琴 湘伦小雨四手联弹 Ride With Me 父与子 情人的眼泪（姚苏蓉） First Kiss《彩虹》 女孩别为我哭泣（黄俊郎） 晴天娃娃（江语晨） 阿郎与阿宝 与父共舞 路小雨 The Swan Flash Back Secret（慢板） Angel 小雨写立可白Ⅰ《蒲公英的约定》 小雨写立可白Ⅱ Secret（加长快板） 琴房 Ending 不能说的秘密（周杰伦） 2 《天台电影原声带》 2013年7月12日 ☆ 美术馆 保龄男孩 波爷（曾志伟 麦烝玮 雪糕） 美景 浪子膏 天台（周杰伦 柯有伦 徐帆 宋健彰 黄俊郎 于冠华 蔡朝华 郑凯开 罗文裕 李汪哲 罗宇轩） 气势 龙门澡堂 打架舞（周杰伦 柯有伦 宋健彰 黄俊郎） IF（温拿乐队） 快门慢舞（邱凯伟 李心艾） 阿郎的童年 Strike 热血码头 钱难赚（柯有伦 宋健彰 黄俊郎） 水管的友情 逛夜市（黄雨勋） 情人湖夜市（从从） 捞金鱼 骰子 大明星（周杰伦 柯有伦 宋健彰 于冠华 蔡朝华 罗文裕） 屋顶上的愿望 You're My Everything（Santa Esmeralda） 英雄之歌 天台的月光（周杰伦） 竹竿舞 狗仔舞（周杰伦） 威少的陷阱 哪里都是你（周杰伦） 兄弟的安慰 悲剧的序幕 无助 亡命追逐 Goodbye 天台的月光（吉他版） 合辑 # 名称 发行时间 曲目 1 《The Crew 乐酷‧概念合辑》 2011年6月7日 ★ 天地一斗（周杰伦 Kobe Bryant） 痛了才懂（浪花兄弟） Do You See Me ?（袁咏琳） I'm Ok （杨瑞代 浪花兄弟） 我没有（梁心颐） 麦烝玮（周杰伦） 橡皮筋（杨瑞代） 4Chords（梁心颐） 瑰宝（浪花兄弟 袁咏琳） 尘埃（袁咏琳） 单曲 # 名称 发行时间 制作公司 发行公司 备注 1 不能说的秘密 2007年6月18日 杰威尔音乐 索尼音乐娱乐 后来被收录于电影原声带《不能说的秘密》中 2 千山万水 2008年4月30日 北京2008年奥运会歌曲专辑 3 天地一斗 2011年4月6日 后来被收录于合辑《The Crew 乐酷‧概念合辑》中 4 等你下课 2018年1月18日 5 不爱我就拉倒 2018年5月15日 6 说好不哭 2019年9月16日 With. 五月天 阿信 7 我是如此相信 2019年12月12日 电影《天火》主题曲 8 Mojito 2020年6月12日 参加歌曲 收录专辑 曲目 歌曲 发行日期 作曲 作词 录像带导演 长度 《Promise So Crazy》 2 刀马旦 2001年10月 周杰伦 方文山 3:13 《看我72变》 5 布拉格广场 2003年3月 周杰伦 方文山 4:55 《有点野》 11 屋顶 2005年6月 周杰伦 周杰伦 5:19 《彩虹天堂》 11 彩虹天堂 2005年12月 刘耕宏 刘耕宏 5:05 《给你的情书》 1 月光 2008年9月 杨瑞代 杨瑞代 3:55 《袁咏琳Cindy》 2 画沙 2009年10月 袁咏琳 方文山 4:34 抗SARS单曲 1 手牵手 2003年5月21日 王力宏、陶喆 陈镇川 7:20 百事可乐广告主题曲 1 蓝色飞扬 Dare For More 2004年 杜自持、陈尧仁 林夕 3:51 音乐录影带 # 名称 发行时间 附注 曲目 1 《龙战骑士》 2009年1月20日 收录《我很忙》及《魔杰座》全碟20首单曲录像带。 ★ DVD 牛仔很忙 MV 彩虹 MV 青花瓷 MV 阳光宅男 MV 蒲公英的约定 MV 无双 MV 我不配 MV 扯 MV 甜甜的 MV 最长的电影 MV DVD 龙战骑士 MV 给我一首歌的时间 MV 蛇舞 MV 花海 MV 魔术先生 MV 说好的幸福呢 MV 兰亭序 MV 流浪诗人 MV 乔克叔叔 MV 稻香 MV 2 《J Moment》 2012年7月17日 收录《跨时代》及《惊叹号》全碟20首单曲录像带。 ☆ DVD 跨时代 MV 说了再见 MV 烟花易冷 MV 免费教学录影带 MV 好久不见 MV 雨下一整晚 MV 嘻哈空姐 MV 自导自演 MV 超人不会飞 MV 花絮 跨时代 烟花易冷 免费教学录影带 好久不见 雨下一整晚 自导自演 超人不会飞 DVD 惊叹号 MV 迷魂曲 MV Mine Mine MV 公主病 MV 你好吗 MV 疗伤烧肉粽 MV 琴伤 MV 水手怕水 MV 世界未末日 MV 皮影戏 MV 超跑女神 MV 花絮 惊叹号 迷魂曲 Mine Mine 你好吗 疗伤烧肉粽 琴伤 水手怕水 世界未末日 皮影戏 超跑女神 派台歌曲成绩（香港地区） 派台歌曲各台上榜最高位置 唱片 歌曲 903 RTHK 997 TVB 备注 2001年 Jay 可爱女人 5 5 - - Jay 星晴 - 3 4 5 Jay 斗牛 2 - - - Jay 龙卷风 1 16 - - 范特西 双截棍 2 12 - - 范特西 开不了口 1 1 - 1 三台冠军歌 范特西 爸 我回来了 19 - - - 范特西 威廉古堡 7 - - - 范特西 安静 - 6 - 5 2002年 范特西EP 世界末日 16 19 - - 范特西 对不起 - - 9 - 范特西 简单爱 2 5 14 - 我们在成长 - 1 - - 2002香港电台太阳计划主题曲 八度空间 最后的战役 6 - 9 - 八度空间 回到过去 (1) 1 3 1 三台冠军歌 八度空间 半岛铁盒 7 - - - 八度空间 半兽人 19 - - - 2003年 叶惠美 以父之名 7 6 1 5 叶惠美 你听得到 1 1 1 1 四台冠军歌 叶惠美 东风破 7 3 - - 寻找周杰伦EP 轨迹 14 11 - - 2004年 七里香 七里香 1 1 1 2 三台冠军歌 七里香 园游会 4 8 - 3 七里香 外婆 9 14 - - 2005年 11月的萧邦 漂移 15 - 11 - 11月的萧邦 一路向北 17 - - - 11月的萧邦 夜曲 1 1 1 6 三台冠军歌 11月的萧邦 黑色毛衣 5 3 - 2 2006年 霍元甲EP 霍元甲 3 1 9 - 11月的萧邦 发如雪 17 - - - 依然范特西 千里之外 13 2 4 8 合唱：费玉清 依然范特西 迷迭香 7 3 3 - 黄金甲EP 黄金甲 11 3 - - 依然范特西 菊花台 15 3 - - 2007年 不能说的秘密电影原声带 不能说的秘密 1 7 - - 我很忙 牛仔很忙 5 8 - - 我很忙 彩虹 2 4 - - 2008年 我很忙 甜甜的 19 7 - - 周杰伦2007世界巡回演唱会 周大侠 - 17 - - 合唱：杜国璋 魔杰座 稻香 3 2 - - 魔杰座 说好的幸福呢 20 13 - - 2009年 Cindy 画沙 2 12 2 ^ 合唱：袁咏琳 2010年 跨时代 超人不会飞 1 3 - ^ 跨时代 烟花易冷 16 - - ^ 2011年 The Crew 乐酷‧概念合辑 天地一斗 16 - - ^ 合唱：Kobe Bryant 惊叹号 惊叹号 18 - - ^ 惊叹号 Mine Mine 8 3 - ^ 2012年 惊叹号 你好吗 13 - - - 12新作 红尘客栈 2 3 3 - 2013年 12新作 明明就 1 4 - 3 12新作 公公偏头痛 10 - - - 天台电影原声带 打架舞 - - - - 合唱：柯有伦、弹头、黄俊郎 天台电影原声带 波爷 - - - - 合唱：曾志伟、麦烝玮、雪糕、袁咏琳 2014年 哎呦，不错哦 鞋子特大号 2 11 - - 2015年 哎呦，不错哦 算什么男人 - 10 - - 哎呦，不错哦 听见下雨的声音 20 16 - - 2016年 Kung Fu Panda 3 Try - - - - 合唱：派伟俊 周杰伦的床边故事 床边故事 16 12 - - 周杰伦的床边故事 不该 - - - - 合唱：张惠妹 DBC华语歌曲流行指数：4 周杰伦的床边故事 一点点 - - - - 周杰伦的床边故事 告白气球 - 13 - - 2018年 等你下课 13 - - - 不爱我就拉倒 - - - - 2019年 说好不哭 1 1 2 - 与阿信合唱 我是如此相信 - 10 - - 电影《天火》主题曲 2020年 MOJITO 12 3 3 - Chill Club推介榜：4 各台冠军歌总数 903 RTHK 997 TVB 备注 10 8 4 3 四台冠军歌总数：1 上榜中（*） 粗体显示为冠军歌曲 (1)表示两周冠军 (^)代表由于TVB与包括其所属新力唱片的四大唱片公司的版税纷争而并无派上TVB 参考资料 周杰倫作品列表. 杰威尔音乐 JVR Music. THE RECORDING INDUSTRY WORLD SALES (PDF). IFPI. [2013-01-15]. （原始内容 (pdf)存档于2016-05-28） （英语）. 周杰伦力压歌神张学友 连续三年获世界音乐大奖. 新浪娱乐. [2013-01-15]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-04） （中文（中国大陆））. 周杰倫《12新作》上海开启“摩天轮”世界巡演. 中国新闻网 （中文（中国大陆））. 21世纪最卖专辑中天新闻 视频：周杰伦专辑庆功宴 将拍《霍元甲》MV. 新浪娱乐. [2013-07-12]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-04）. 周董搬来清代龙椅 《依然范特西》销量破300万. 华夏时报. [2013-07-12]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-04）. [隐藏]查论编 周杰伦 录音室专辑 杰伦范特西八度空间叶惠美七里香11月的萧邦依然范特西我很忙魔杰座跨时代惊叹号12新作哎呦，不错哦周杰伦的床边故事 迷你专辑 范特西Plus寻找周杰伦霍元甲黄金甲 现场专辑 The One演唱会无与伦比演唱会2007世界巡回演唱会超时代魔天伦世界巡回演唱会地表最强世界巡回演唱会 原声带专辑 不能说的·秘密 电影原声带天台 电影原声带 独立单曲 千山万水天地一斗等你下课不爱我就拉倒说好不哭我是如此相信Mojito 电影 寻找周杰伦头文字D满城尽带黄金甲不能说的·秘密功夫灌篮刺陵苏乞儿青蜂侠阿爸逆战天台出神入化2一万公里的约定叱咤风云练爱iNG限制级战警4靠谱兄弟 电视 熊猫人Mr. J频道中国好声音 (第四季)中国新歌声 (第一季)中国新歌声 (第二季)2018中国好声音这就是灌篮周游记 配音 十万个冷笑话功夫熊猫3 相关条目 音乐作品创作作品演唱会奖项方文山黄俊郎昆凌 分类：周杰伦台湾音乐作品列表流行音乐作品列表

王力宏得奖与提名列表

王力宏得奖与提名列表 （来源搜索："王力宏得奖与提名列表" — 网页、新闻、书籍、学术、图像），以检查网络上是否存在该主题的更多可靠来源（判定指引）。 本条目列举美国歌手王力宏在音乐、戏剧、媒体上的历年得奖与提名列表。 年份 奖项 1988年 代表Jefferson Elementary School参加纽约校际数学比赛获优等奖 代表Jefferson Elementary School参加Olympic of the Mind获优等奖 1989年 由学校推荐参加 Johns Hopkins University 举办的Young Talent Search Program 考试以优异成绩通过 获得模范学生奖 High Honors Awards（成绩优等奖） 1990年 获得模范学生奖 High Honors Awards（成绩优等奖） 1991年－1993年 高中时期，每年获得成绩优等奖，并代表参加高中校际辩论比赛及国际研习社联合国会议（Model United Nations ）每年都替学校赢得大奖，替个人赢得"Best Delegate"（最佳代表） 1993 4月，康乃尔大学为美国高中学生举办的论文比赛，力宏的论文“宗教与人生”获得第二名 作品“老鹰”在Art Festival获选第二名 成为“National Honor Society”的会员 1991 获得 Phenomenal Freshman Award、Most Musical StudentAward、Character Development Award 1994年 6月，Sutherland High School优等毕业生奖,Pittsford Musical Inc. Scholarship Award 6月，伊士曼音乐学院优等毕业生奖、荣誉 Violin Recital 5月，获Monroe County Council Award／领导能力和学业模范生 3月，获National Merit Scholar／美国高中毕业生之最高荣誉 1996年 民生报十大偶像最佳新人奖 1997年 入围金曲奖“海外最佳男演唱人” 10月，入选十大广告明星 1999年 第十届台湾金曲奖“最佳男演唱人”及“最佳专辑制作人奖”-《公转自转》 新加坡金曲奖“年度最佳制作人奖” 3月，《公转自转》98年度十大唱片奖 、98年度十大歌曲奖 1月，《公转自转》Channel V 年度 Top20 歌曲奖 2000年 香港电台十大中文金曲颁奖典礼 - 最有前途新人男歌手 金奖 MTV - 台湾区最受欢迎男歌手奖 中华音乐人交流协会1999十大专辑 - 《不可能错过你》、十大单曲-《流泪手心》 入围第十一届金曲奖“最佳男演唱人”及“最佳作曲人” ACMA第一届亚洲中文金曲颁奖典礼15大金曲-《永远的第一天》、最佳作曲奖-《欢喜城》、最佳男演唱人奖 Channel V年度Top20歌曲奖 - 不可能错过你 2001年 叱咤乐坛流行榜颁奖典礼“卓越表现大奖”铜奖 TVB十大劲歌金曲颁奖典礼“2000年度杰出表现奖银奖”、“最受欢迎国语歌曲奖铜奖”-《不要害怕》 香港电台十大中文金曲“全国最受欢迎歌手男歌手银奖”及“飞跃大奖男歌手铜奖” 获提名角逐香港电影金像奖“最佳新人奖” 入围第十二届金曲奖“最佳男演唱人” CCTV- MTV音乐盛典“台湾年度最佳单曲”-《龙的传人》 第一届华语歌曲排行榜“最佳创作歌手” 马来西亚第一届金曲红人颁奖礼“最佳创作男歌手”、“最佳专辑制作人”-《唯一》、“十大金曲”-《唯一》 TVB劲歌金曲季选颁奖典礼上“最受欢迎国语歌曲”-《唯一》 2002年 TVB十大劲歌金曲颁奖典礼上荣获“2001年度杰出表现奖银奖”，并以《唯一》荣获“最受欢迎国语歌曲奖银奖” 香港电台十大中文金曲上荣获“飞跃大奖男歌手金奖”，并以《唯一》荣获“全国最受欢迎中文流行歌曲奖银奖” 入围第十三届金曲奖“最佳男演唱人” 2003年 HITO流行音乐奖-“HITO最受欢迎男歌手”、“年度HITO蝉连冠军最久单曲”-《W-H-Y》、“HITO华语歌曲奖”-《W-H-Y》 Channel V 第九届全球华语榜中榜-“传媒推荐荐奖”、“最佳音乐录像带奖”-《两个人不等于我们》 入围第十四届金曲奖-“最佳编曲奖”、“MV大奖”-《W-H-Y》 第三届全球华语歌曲榜，荣获“最受欢迎创作歌手”、“20大金曲”-《两个人不等于我们》 马来西亚第3届金曲红人奖，入围“最受欢迎红人男歌手”、“亚洲杰出歌手表现奖” 华语流行乐传媒大奖2003年第4季，入围“最佳男艺人”、“十佳专辑”-《不可思议》、“十佳单曲”-《你不在》 中国时报年度十大国语专辑 -《不可思议》 2004年 第10届华语榜中榜颁奖典礼-“台港最佳男歌手奖” 第二届HIT FM2003年流行音乐年度颁奖典礼-“DJ年度最爱专辑奖”-《不可思议》、“年度十大华语歌曲奖”-《你不在》、“年度Hit Fm特别奖”-《手牵手》／陶喆、王力宏 泰国Channel V颁奖典礼-“台港中最佳华语歌手奖” 第15届金曲奖“最佳专辑制作人奖”-《不可思议》 第三届日本MTV音乐录像带大奖-“台湾最佳Buzz Asia台湾艺人奖” 第四届全球华语歌曲排行榜-“最受欢迎创作歌手”、“最佳专辑”-《不可思议》、“年度20大金曲”-《你不在》。 新加坡金曲奖 - [亚太最受推崇男歌手] 2005年 入围第16届金曲奖“最佳国语流行音乐演唱专辑”-《心中的日月》、“最佳编曲人”-《竹林深处》、“最佳国语男演唱人” 第五届全球华语歌曲排行榜- [最受欢迎男歌手] 、[最佳作曲人] - 《Forever Love》、[年度20大金曲] - 《Forever Love》 新加坡金曲奖 - [台湾地区最受欢迎歌手] 2006年 2006亚洲MTV音乐大奖-台湾最受欢迎男歌手 第17届金曲奖“最佳国语男演唱人”-《盖世英雄》 第六届全球华语歌曲排行榜- [最佳制作人] -《盖世英雄》、[年度20大金曲] -《Kiss Goodbye》 2006年度新城国语力颁奖礼 — 新城国语力亚洲专辑奖《盖世英雄》 2007年 第十三届华语音乐榜中榜颁奖礼-“年度人气歌曲奖”-《大城小爱》、“最受欢迎男歌手奖”（台港地区）、“最佳创作歌手奖”（台港地区） IFPI 香港唱片销量大奖(2006)-“十大销量国语唱片”- 《2006盖世英雄Live Concert演唱会影音全记录》、《演唱会影音全记录》 2007 HITO流行音乐奖-“HITO蝉连冠军最久专辑”- 王力宏《盖世英雄》、“HITO男歌手”、“HITO年度十大华语歌曲”- 王力宏《Kiss Goodbye》 第二届KKBOX数字音乐风云榜 -“年度二十大单曲”- 王力宏《Kiss Goodbye 》、“年度十大专辑”- 王力宏《盖世英雄》、“飞碟 KKBOX 传媒点播人气奖”- 王力宏《Kiss Goodbye》 第七届全球华语歌曲排行榜-“最受欢迎20大金曲:”-《落叶归根》、“最受欢迎创作歌手/组合奖” 2008年 2008无线音乐咪咕汇盛典 -“ 无线音乐最畅销对唱金曲-《你是我心内的一首歌》 ”-“ 无线音乐最畅销流行摇滚金曲”、“无线音乐全曲下载” 2008 新加坡金曲奖 -“ Y.E.S. 93.3FM 醉心龙虎榜年度十大金曲奖 ”- One World One Dream、“Y.E.S. 93.3FM 醉心龙虎榜榜上风光奖” IFPI香港唱片销量大奖2007-“十大畅销国语唱片”- 王力宏《改变自己》／Sony BMG 2007Hito流行音乐奖-“HITO男歌手”、“HITO创作歌手”、“HITO网络首播人气”、“年度10大金曲” 2007年度雪碧中国原创音乐流行榜-“最优秀合唱歌曲”- 王力宏 Selina《你是我心内的一首歌》 (台湾)；“台港金曲奖”-《改变自己》;“最优秀专辑奖”-《改变自己》 2007北京流行音乐典礼-“年度最佳制作人”；“年度最受欢迎男歌手”(台港)；“年度金曲”-《落叶归根》 Sina新浪网主办的“2007网络盛典”票选活动-“年度台港男歌手” 2009年 第九届全球华语歌曲排行榜 -“年度最佳男女对唱歌曲奖-《另一个天堂》 张靓颖王力宏”、“最受欢迎二十大金曲奖 - 《心跳》” 2009第15届新加坡金曲奖 -“Y.E.S. 93.3FM醉心龙虎榜顶尖金曲” 入围第20届金曲奖“最佳国语男歌手奖” Music Radio中国TOP排行榜 -“ 最佳金曲-《心跳》 ”、“ 港台年度最佳制作人”、“港台年度最佳男歌手”、“音乐之声点播冠军奖” 2010年 2009年度中歌榜北京流行音乐典礼 - 港台年度最受欢迎男歌手奖、年度最佳作曲奖(春雨里洗过的太阳)、年度最佳制作人奖、港台年度全能艺人奖、年度金曲奖(春雨里洗过的太阳) Hit FM年度百首单曲奖 -《春雨里洗过的太阳》、《心跳》 第十届全球华语歌曲排行榜 - 年度二十大金曲奖(柴米油盐酱醋茶)、中歌榜年度金曲奖(你不知道的事)、港台最佳制作人奖、港台最佳男歌手奖 2011年 第2届MY Astro 至尊流行榜颁奖典礼 - 海外至尊男歌手奖、至尊年度大奖、至尊制作人奖、至尊创作男歌手奖、至尊金曲奖(你不知道的事)、至尊金曲奖(伯牙绝弦) Channel V华语榜中榜暨亚洲影响力大典 - 最佳男歌手奖、最佳专辑奖、最佳新进导演奖 第1届全球流行音乐金榜 - Hit FM 推崇大奖、年度20大金曲奖(你不知道的事)、年度最佳作曲奖、年度最佳男歌手奖 2012年 第14届Mnet Asian Music Award - 亚洲最佳艺人奖 第35届十大中文金曲颁奖音乐会 - 全国最佳男歌手 2016年 王力宏获选为PETA亚洲善待动物组织2016年最性感素食艺人。其他候选人还包括：好莱坞影视巨星Maggie Q、国民大叔吴秀波、超级巨星刘德华、歌手方大同等。[1][2] 11月13日(美东时间)王力宏获颁母校美国波士顿柏克利音乐学院（Berklee College of Music）荣誉博士学位，由校长布朗（Roger Brown）亲颁。[3][4] 参考资料 王力宏获选2016亚洲最性感素食艺人 ̠-亚洲善待动物组织. 亚洲善待动物组织. [2017-03-16]. （原始内容存档于2017-03-16） （美国英语）. 星之保養：最性感素食藝人王力宏 健康飲食帶來青春活力 - 香港文匯報. paper.wenweipo.com. [2017-03-16]. （原始内容存档于2017-01-08） （中文（香港））. 联合新闻网. 王力宏獲母校榮譽博士 學弟妹狂賀. 即时. [2017-03-16]. （原始内容存档于2017-03-16）. 中央通讯社. 王力宏獲母校榮譽博士 學弟妹狂賀-中央社即時新聞 CNA NEWS. [2017-03-16]. （原始内容存档于2017-03-16）. 外部链接 维基共享资源中相关的多媒体资源：王力宏得奖与提名列表 （繁体中文）王力宏官方网站 Homeboy Music Studios, Inc. （日语）Wang Leehom-ワン・リーホン （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）（日本官方） 王力宏得奖与提名列表的新浪微博 需注册 王力宏得奖与提名列表的Facebook专页 王力宏得奖与提名列表在互联网电影数据库（IMDb）上的资料（英文） 王力宏得奖与提名列表在香港影库上的简介 [显示]查论编 王力宏 分类：王力宏华语流行音乐家获奖与提名列表

新冠病毒（COVID-19）疫情-在這裡，武漢病毒學研究所開始

為了防止類似薩斯的疫情再次爆發，中國和西方科學家努力從中國南方的蝙蝠洞穴中尋找新的病毒。他們的努力將他們帶到中國墨江的一個礦區，那裡有六名礦工出現了類似新冠病毒（COVID-19）的症狀。 正是在這裡，武漢病毒學研究所的石正麗發現了已知的與新冠病毒（COVID-19）最近的親戚。這種病毒和其它數千個病毒樣本被帶回武漢的幾個實驗室。 中國實驗室的部分資金來自西方機構，包括安東尼•福奇博士負責的美國國家過敏症和傳染病研究所（NIAID）和彼得•達扎克負責的「生態健康聯盟」。 在新冠病毒（COVID-19）疫情於武漢爆發之際，福奇率先提出並試圖推廣「自然起源論」，排斥有關實驗室泄漏的討論，有多位西方領軍科學家參與其中。 ▲1930-1931年，中共肅反AB團，大殺「莫須有」。 1956 1978 2002-2003 2003 2004年春 HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Ureem2805/CC BY-SA 4.0 PRAKASH SINGH/AFP via Getty Images FREDERIC J. BROWN/AFP via Getty Images JOHANNES EISELE/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 武漢微生物實驗室在中國湖北省武漢市成立。 武漢微生物實驗室更名為武漢病毒學研究所。 在一次嚴重急性呼吸系統綜合症（薩斯）疫情爆發期間，全世界有774人死亡。很快確定病毒是從蝙蝠傳播給果子狸然後再傳播給人的事實。 在薩斯初次爆發被平息後，在新加坡的第二次爆發與一次實驗室事故有關。此外，據報導，薩斯病毒曾多次從位於北京的高級控制設施中逃出。 石正麗，武漢病毒學研究所新發傳染病研究中心主任，在中國南方洞穴的蝙蝠體內發現了冠狀病毒的天然宿主。 2004 2005 2005-2010 2007 12月12日年 2008 9月年 HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Lauren DeCicca/Getty Images Lauren DeCicca/Getty Images Anusorn Nakdee/Shutterstock MENAHEM KAHANA/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 歐盟簽署法令，在武漢病毒學研究所成立生物安全四級實驗室。 石正麗的團隊在蝙蝠身上進行了人類薩斯抗體檢測，確定「三種馬蹄形蝙蝠的樣本中含有薩斯病毒抗體」。 石正麗的團隊集中在中國西南部雲南省省會昆明市郊區的石頭洞，對馬蹄蝙蝠的冠狀病毒進行了研究和採樣。 石正麗和她的團隊在《病毒學雜誌》上發表了一篇論文，展示了如何利用基於艾滋病病毒的偽病毒來操控馬蹄蝙蝠病毒，進而感染、攻擊人類細胞。 彼得•達扎克的「生態健康聯盟」獲得了來自福奇的NIAID的第一筆資金，研究「蝙蝠身上出現病毒的風險」。達扎克建議「研究這些新病毒的發病機制，以及一組還沒有出現在人類身上的蝙蝠病毒」。 2009 6月29日年 2010 6月22日年 2011 12月30日年 CDC/Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 美國國家過敏症和傳染病研究所（NIAID）主任安東尼•福奇博士、他在NIAID的同事加里•納貝爾以及美國國家衛生研究院（NIH）院長弗朗西斯•柯林斯為《華盛頓郵報》撰寫了《值得承擔的流感病毒風險》一文。這篇文章指出，研究人員已經創造了一種「自然界不存在的」實驗室病毒，「重要的信息和見解可能來自在實驗室中培養一種具有潛在危險的病毒。」 美國國際開發署設立了「預言」項目，由丹尼斯•卡羅爾負責，致力於監測可能傳染給人類的危險動物病毒。「預言」項目隨後將與武漢病毒學研究所合作。 美國國務卿希拉里•克林頓簽署的一份外交電報承認，法國正在協助中國建立武漢病毒學研究所生物安全四級實驗室。電報對可能的生物武器研究發出了警告。 石正麗和其他人發表了一篇論文，報告了如何使用活性馬蹄蝙蝠病毒和一種基於艾滋病病毒的偽病毒來增強薩斯冠狀病毒SARS-CoV對人類的傳染性的額外實驗。 武漢病毒學研究所生物安全四級實驗室開工建設。 Alex Wong/Getty Images GUANG NIU/AFP via Getty Images KEVIN DIETSCH/POOL/AFP via Getty Images 2011-2012 4月-9月年 2012-2013 2012 4月年 4月26日 STEEVE JORDAN/AFP via Getty Images ATTILA Barsan/Shutterstock TONY KARUMBA/AFP via Getty Images JOHANNES EISELE/AFP via Getty Images Antony-22/CC BY-SA 4.0 Image Image Image Image Image 石正麗、「生態健康聯盟」主席彼得•達扎克等其他人「在中國雲南省昆明市的一個地點（石頭洞）」進行了為期12個月的對馬蹄形蝙蝠群落的調查。他們聲稱首次成功地從蝙蝠糞便樣本中分離出活性冠狀病毒。此次研究與石正麗的團隊於2012年和2013年在墨江礦區進行的研究相結合。 另一種蝙蝠病毒引起了第二場流行病，稱為中東呼吸綜合症（MERS）。這次的中介宿主動物是駱駝。全世界有逾840人死亡。 武漢市疾病預防控制中心的病毒學家田俊華開始從中國偏遠地區收集蝙蝠，以便在武漢市疾病預防控制中心進行進一步研究。田俊華後來承認，他在沒有採取任何安全措施的情況下捕獲了大約1萬隻蝙蝠，並承認經常有蝙蝠的尿液和血液噴到他自己身上。 在中國雲南省墨江縣，六名礦工在清理礦井中的蝙蝠糞便後出現了類似新冠病毒（COVID-19）的症狀，其中三人死亡。後來石正麗團隊從該礦中分離出了名為「RaTG13」的病毒，並將其送到了武漢病毒學研究所。直到今天，RaTG13仍然是已知的與SARS2最近的親戚。 福奇在參議院國土安全委員會的聽證會上報告說，美國國家衛生與發展研究所（NIAID）正在資助對病毒進行改造的實驗，以允許氣溶膠傳播。福奇聲稱，「這種研究的風險與效益的比值明顯傾向於造福社會。」 5月年 6月22日 7月31日 2012-2013 8月年 10月9日 STR/AFP via Getty Images grandbrothers/Shutterstock Lauren DeCicca/Getty Images CHRISTOPHE ARCHAMBAULT/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 墨江的兩名礦工死亡後，武漢病毒學研究所對四名幸存者進行了測試。這四個人都有針對類似薩斯的冠狀病毒的抗體。第三個礦工後來因病死亡。 由NIAID資助並發表在《科學》雜誌上的一項研究對禽流感進行了基因改造，使其可以通過空氣傳播。 福奇做了一個題為「流感研究的前進方向」的演講，涉及到「『功能獲得研究』這一有爭議的問題」。他說，「如果我們想繼續這項重要的工作，需要共同完成一個更好的工作，需要闡明這些實驗的科學原理。」 在5月對礦工們進行了檢測以後，石正麗和她來自武漢病毒學研究所的科研團隊從墨江礦區收集到了蝙蝠病毒樣本。這些樣本被送回武漢病毒學研究所做進一步分析和儲存。 福奇寫了一篇論文，討論了與功能獲得實驗相關的實驗室事故的可能性。福奇聲稱，「這種實驗以及由此產生的知識帶來的好處大於風險。」 2013-2020 2013 2月7日年 2013 5月28日 7月24日 Nsaum75/CC BY-SA 3.0 JOHANNES EISELE/AFP via Getty Images Image Image 昆明醫科大學的一篇碩士論文研究了2012年導致墨江礦區三名礦工死亡的病毒，得出結論：死因是一種來自蝙蝠的類似於薩斯的冠狀病毒。 論文指出，石正麗之前得出的「蝙蝠攜帶的類似於薩斯的冠狀病毒不會傳染給人類」的結論是錯誤的。 這些礦工的死亡似乎促使石正麗將工作重點放在墨江礦區，她後來於2013年7月24日在那裡正式發現了已知的與新冠病毒（COVID-19）最近的親屬。 Image Image 美國國防部在8年的時間裡向達扎克的「生態健康聯盟」提供了3900萬美元。 《公共科學圖書館—病原體》發表了一篇由武漢市疾控中心的田俊華和病毒學家愛德華•霍爾姆斯合作撰寫的關於田俊華個人收集的新型蝙蝠病毒的研究論文。 後來霍爾姆斯在推廣「自然起源理論」方面發揮了重要作用。 「RaTG13」病毒是由石正麗的團隊在墨江礦區發現的。這個與新冠病毒（COVID-19）最近的親屬的來源和位置後來被石正麗隱瞞了。 美國德克薩斯州加爾維斯頓國家實驗室開始培養中國研究人員進入生物安全四級實驗室工作，在武漢病毒學研究所新設立的四級實驗室中取代了法國的作用。 The Royal Society/CC BY-SA 3.0 10月30日 2014 5月年 8月8日 10月16日 6月1日 CDC JEWEL SAMAD/AFP via Getty Images Image 由石正麗指導的武漢病毒學研究所的一篇論文提到了墨江礦工事件，指出「三名礦工死於肺炎」。這篇論文承認，石正麗及其團隊「調查了這個洞穴裡蝙蝠攜帶的病毒」，並得出結論，「這六名礦工很可能感染了蝙蝠攜帶的病原體。」 這篇論文也是首次提到了被稱為新冠病毒的近親的RaBtCoV/4991病毒。 「對擴增的蝙蝠冠狀病毒N基因進行了重疊PCR，其中4991,3740(β)-N是由實驗室人員擴增的。」 Image Image Image 石正麗、達扎克等其他人合作發表了一項由NIAID資助的研究結果，宣布首次從馬蹄蝠糞便樣本中成功分離出活性冠狀病毒。石正麗的團隊將該病毒命名為WIV1——顯然是武漢病毒學研究所英文名稱的縮寫。 達扎克的「生態健康聯盟」獲得了NIAID提供的370萬美元贊助，用於研究蝙蝠冠狀病毒是否會傳播給人類。 這項工作將在武漢病毒學研究所進行。 加爾維斯頓國家實驗室主任詹姆斯•勒杜克承認，他正在培訓一名來自武漢病毒學研究所的中國研究人員維護和操作一個四級設施。勒杜克還表示，我們「在與中國科學院武漢病毒學研究所的合作中已經投入了大量資金，渴望能確保取得長期的成功」。 奧巴馬政府宣布暫停「功能增強研究」。國家衛生研究院院長弗朗西斯•柯林斯指出，「可是，這些研究也涉及生物安全和生物安全風險，需要更好地考量。」 Uppsala Health Summit/CC BY 3.0 cdc.gov 2015 1月31日 2015 2015 3月 10月 JOHANNES EISELE/AFP via Getty Images NOEL CELIS/AFP via Getty Images Kateryna Kon/Shutterstock NIAID HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 武漢病毒學研究所生物安全四級實驗室建築階段完成。這個實驗室是與法國政府合作建造的。 法國認證企業退出了武漢病毒學研究所生物安全四級實驗室項目，理由是法國拒絕向中國提供可用於生物武器研究的「致命病毒和防病毒服」。武漢病毒學研究所後來要求美國國家傳染病預防控制研究所NIAID提供「對密封服進行消毒的消毒劑」。 功能獲得實驗在武漢病毒學研究所進行。從2015年開始，石正麗和她的團隊在各種科學文章中詳細闡述了這項工作。 福奇的美國國家傳染病研究所（NIAID）駐中國代表處代表陳平向美國國家傳染病研究所辦公室發送電子郵件，表示她想參觀武漢病毒研究所新建立的四級實驗室。 那次訪問沒有得到允許，陳平要等到2017年10月才能參觀該設施。 石正麗的研究團隊稱，石頭洞附近3%的村民攜帶「來自蝙蝠類似薩斯的冠狀病毒」的抗體。 2015 年底 11月9日 2015 11月12日 2016 2月18日 6月 SAUL LOEB/AFP via Getty Images JOHANNES EISELE/AFP via Getty Images PETER PARKS/AFP via Getty Images LOIC VENANCE/AFP via Getty Images Martin Janca/Shutterstock Image Image Image Image Image 一篇由美國國家過敏及傳染病研究院（NIAID）資助的發表在《自然》雜誌上的文章指出，「一組類似於薩斯的蝙蝠冠狀病毒顯示了出現在人類身上的可能性。」石正麗和其他人觀察到，他們發現的一些病毒「在原始人類氣道細胞中能有效複製」。研究人員說他們的工作「表明存在SARS-CoV從目前在蝙蝠種群中傳播的病毒中重新出現的潛在風險」。文中沒有提到墨江礦區或者遇難礦工。 另一篇發表在《自然》雜誌上的文章特別警告：武漢病毒學研究所進行的蝙蝠冠狀病毒實驗可能有導致大流行的風險。羅格斯大學生物學家理查德•艾布萊特告訴《自然》雜誌，「這項工作的唯一影響是在實驗室中創造了一種新的非自然風險。」 據《紐約郵報》報導，一名前「生態健康聯盟」員工稱，達扎克「在2015年末曾被中情局接觸」。 石正麗在一份中國期刊上發表了一篇文章，這是她第一次親口承認自己從墨江的一個廢棄礦井中獲得了多種冠狀病毒，包括新的類似薩斯的毒株。她沒有提到礦工們，是他們的神祕患病和死亡把她帶到了洞穴。在這篇文章中石正麗承認她從墨江礦區獲得了一種名為RaBtCoV/4991的病毒。後來她在2020年2月初將該病毒重新命名為RaTG13，當時新冠病毒（COVID-19）大流行剛剛開始出現。 由中國疾控中心主任高福指導、愛德華•霍姆爾斯（他後來成為「自然起源敘事」的主要推動者）協助指導的中國博士論文承認了2012年4月墨江礦區有三名礦工死亡，並證實了武漢病毒學研究所的一個團隊隨後從該礦區收集到了蝙蝠樣本。 2016 年底 1月9日 7月15日 2017 1月20日 PETER PARKS/AFP via Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images NIAID Image Image Image Image Image 武漢病毒學研究所袁志明請求NIAID提供「用於氣密服消毒和表面消毒室內消毒的消毒劑」，供武漢病毒學研究所生物安全四級實驗室使用。雖然此時該實驗室已經開放了18個月，但是袁志明表示，實驗室「是在沒有病原體的狀態下運行」。 距離最初的薩斯爆發地點60英里的四個農場的豬「急性嘔吐和腹瀉」，接近25000頭豬死亡。研究人員後來確定，豬急性腹瀉綜合症（SADS）來自一種病毒，該病毒的基因組序列與在附近洞穴的馬蹄蝙蝠中發現的冠狀病毒98%相同。 武漢病毒學研究所生物安全四級實驗室是中國國家認證認可監督管理委員會認證的實驗室。該實驗室將於2018年11月正式開放。 2015年，法國政府以擔心生物武器為由，拒絕對該實驗室進行認證。 奧巴馬在最後一刻發布了政策指導，取消了他在2014年10月對「功能獲得性研究」實施的暫停政策。 福奇負責的美國國家過敏症和傳染病研究所（NIAID）駐中國代表陳平發了一封內部郵件，稱中國疾控中心負責人高福為「親愛的朋友」。 BRENDAN SMIALOWSKI/AFP via Getty Images NOEL CELIS/AFP via Getty Images 2月23日 2月14日 4月 5月3日 10月1日 CDC/ Dr. Erskine Palmer LOIC VENANCE/AFP via Getty Images YE AUNG THU/AFP via Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 福奇在美國喬治敦大學發表了題為「下屆政府的大流行防範」的主題演講，表示「將會發生意想不到的大流行」。福奇還指出，「人們應該注意自然原因。」 發表在《自然》雜誌上的一篇文章警告說，武漢病毒學研究所的P4實驗室有可能發生泄露，並且對中國能否保持必要的信息公開提出了質疑。 一篇由石正麗指導的武漢病毒學研究所的論文詳細介紹了該研究所如何進行實驗，「不留痕跡地」在他們的WIV1冠狀病毒上「替換S基因」。 WIV1顯然是武漢病毒學研究所的簡稱，於2013年10月30日首次公開披露，當時石正麗、達扎克等人發表了一項由NIAID資助的研究成果，聲稱首次從馬蹄蝙蝠糞便樣本中成功分離出活性冠狀病毒WIV1。 中國的一家報紙詳細報導了田俊華的工作，包括他在中國的偏遠地方收集了1萬隻蝙蝠，以便在武漢疾控中心做進一步研究。田俊華承認，他在收集蝙蝠時沒有採取任何安全措施。 達扎克發郵件給福奇，談到武漢病毒學研究所正在進行的蝙蝠冠狀病毒實驗：「我們也在實驗室裡做分析，以確定它是否能感染人類細胞。」 Paul Morigi/Getty Images 2018 11月30日 1月19日 1月-3月 2月26日 10月26日 HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images STEEVE JORDAN/AFP via Getty Images TEH ENG KOON/AFP via Getty Images JOHANNES EISELE/AFP via Getty Images China Photos/Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 福奇的NIAID在中國的代表陳平最終被允許訪問武漢實驗室。在訪問實驗室期間，陳平被禁止在實驗室內拍照。 石正麗、達扎克等人發表了由NIAID資助的研究結果，聲稱他們從雲南省石頭洞收集到的馬蹄蝙蝠很可能來自滋生2003年薩斯冠狀病毒的蝙蝠種群。石正麗沒有提到墨江礦區，那裡有三名礦工死亡，後來她在那裡收集了數千份蝙蝠糞便樣本。 美國駐北京大使館發出兩封外交電報警告說，應注意武漢病毒學研究所的管理和安全。其中一份電報寫道，「在與WIV實驗室的科學家進行交流時，他們指出，新實驗室嚴重缺乏安全操作這個高安全型實驗室所需要的經過適當培訓的技術人員和調查人員。」 美國大使館官員多次訪問武漢病毒學研究所四級實驗室，並且向華盛頓發回兩份正式警告，說「該實驗室安全性不足，那裡正在對來自蝙蝠的冠狀病毒進行危險的研究」。這些警告認為，美國應該支持武漢病毒學研究所，「因為該研究所對蝙蝠冠狀病毒的研究很重要，但也很危險。」 NIAID駐中國代表陳平發現，武漢病毒學研究所正在開發新型流感疫苗。當月晚些時候，有關新疫苗的信息在網上被刪除。 3月2日 3月27日 3月27日 4月4日 7月16日 grandbrothers/Shutterstock -/AFP via Getty Images GREG BAKER/AFP via Getty Images SCREENSHOT/DRASTICRESEARCH Postmodern Studio/Shutterstock Image Image Image Image Image Type something Type something 石正麗、達扎克等人在一份中國雜誌上發表了一篇文章稱，「結果表明，一些SARSr-CoV可能具有很高的感染人類細胞的潛力，而不需要中間宿主。然而，迄今尚未發現SARSr-CoV從蝙蝠直接傳播給人類的證據。」他們的論文沒有提到武漢病毒學研究所一直在實驗室中進行實驗，以確定其中一種病毒是否可以「感染人類細胞」。 美國大使館官員對武漢病毒學研究所做了最後一次訪問，該研究所的研究人員和工作人員向美國官員介紹了新的生物安全四級實驗室。美國官員隨後報告說，武漢病毒學研究所缺乏訓練有素的工作人員。 「生態健康聯盟」的一項資助申請《消除蝙蝠傳播冠狀病毒的威脅》提議通過基因工程把「人類特有的」弗林蛋白酶裂解位點改造成蝙蝠冠狀病毒。 後來證明，對新冠病毒（COVID-19）來說，弗林蛋白酶裂解位點是病毒致病的關鍵。 由石正麗、達扎克等人完成的一項由NIAID資助的研究承認武漢病毒學研究所內有飼養動物的設施，達扎克後來否認該研究所飼養了活蝙蝠。 武漢病毒學研究所發表聲明，將該研究所與杰里米•法勒領導的維康基金會的資金聯繫起來。法勒後來在福奇的「自然起源說」中起到了關鍵作用。 2019 11月 7月 9月12日 9月18日 12月10日 GREG BAKER/AFP via Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images silvabom/Shutterstock John Woods/The Canadian Press gpmb.org Image Image Image Image Image 武漢病毒學研究所生物安全四級實驗室在袁志明主任主持下正式掛牌成立。 一項由石正麗等人完成的由NIAID資助的研究指出，薩斯和中東呼吸綜合症都「可能起源於蝙蝠」。該報告發出警告，蝙蝠冠狀病毒毒株的未來進化「可能會讓它們跨越蝙蝠、果子狸和人類之間的物種屏障，構成潛在的健康威脅」。 加拿大唯一的生物安全四級實驗室開除了一對中國夫婦，理由是得知他們在未經許可的情況下前往武漢病毒學研究所，為那裡新啟用的生物安全四級實驗室培訓科研人員和技術人員。 武漢病毒學研究所的病毒序列資料庫在深夜被關閉。當天晚些時候，研究所發布了一份採購公告，採購「安全服務」，辦理「外國人員的登記和接待」。 由15位政界人士和科學家組成的與世衛組織有關的「全球防範監測委員會」就全球大流行的可能性發出了警告說，「全世界還沒有為快速移動的致命性呼吸道病原體大流行做好準備。」 該報告基於約翰斯•霍普金斯大學於2019年9月10日為「政府績效管理委員會」編寫的一項研究報告。委員會成員包括福奇、法勒和高福等人。 10月中旬 10月7日-24日 10月6日-11日 10月25日 10月 paikong/Shutterstock Getty Images Michael Nagle/Getty Images Usaid.gov ZhengZhou/CC BY-SA 4.0 Image Image Image Image Image 就在此時，在整個武漢，醫院人流量都在增加。哈佛醫學院的一項研究後來表明，這可能是因為新冠病毒（COVID-19）爆發的時間比報導的要早。 美國全國廣播公司NBC於2020年5月獲得的一份報告顯示，武漢病毒學研究所可能發生過「危險事件」。 美國駐武漢總領事拉塞爾•韋斯特加德表示，「在2019年10月中旬，美國駐武漢總領事館的專門團隊得知，這座城市已經受到了被認為是異常惡性流感季節的襲擊。」 根據2020年5月美國全國廣播公司NBC的一份報告，在武漢病毒學研究所的高安全區域，沒有檢測到手機活動。 美國國際開發署（USAID）突然中斷了追蹤和監測可能傳染給人類的危險動物病毒的「預言」項目。該項目曾與武漢病毒學研究所合作。 Page 2 11月 11月 11月17日 12月1日 11月 HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images STR/AFP via Getty Images STR/AFP via Getty Images STR/AFP via Getty Images REDPIXEL.PL/Shutterstock Image Image Image Image Image 美國駐武漢總領事韋斯特加德後來寫道，本月病情進一步惡化。 據2021年5月23日發表的未經證實的報告，武漢病毒學研究所的三名實驗室工作人員因冠狀病毒症狀住院。據傳，武漢病毒學研究所的研究人員黃燕玲是「零號病人」。她的資料在研究所網站上被刪除。 據美國廣播公司ABC 2020年4月8日報導，美國情報官員曾在去年11月警告說，「一場傳染病正在中國的武漢地區蔓延。」隸屬軍方的國家醫學情報中心（NCMI）的一份報告稱，「這可能是一場大災難。」 後來報導說，NCMI得出結論：病毒最可能是從武漢的一個實驗室泄露出來的。NCMI的這一結論被編入「2021年情報界對新冠病毒起源的評估」中，但未註明出處。 據《南華早報》2020年3月13日報導，當日中國發現首例新冠病毒（COVID-19）病例。 《柳葉刀》雜誌後來的一份報告稱，第一例已知的新冠病毒（COVID-19）病例發生在這一天，患者與華南海鮮市場的聯繫不得而知。 世衛組織2021年3月的一份報告指出，第一例已知病例發生在2019年12月8日。 12月2日 12月中旬 12月8日 12月9日 12月10日 STR/AFP via Getty Images FABRICE COFFRINI/AFP via Getty Images STR/AFP via Getty Images Shanghai Media Group/Youtube Screenshot STR/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 武漢疾病預防控制中心生物安全二級實驗室搬遷至新地點，距華南海鮮市場僅900英尺，也與第一批醫生在疫情期間被感染的醫院相毗鄰。據報導，該實驗室「在其實驗室中飼養了疾病纏身的動物，包括大約605隻蝙蝠」。 世衛組織後來聲稱，這一天出現了第一個已知的新冠病毒（COVID-19）病例。這一說法與《柳葉刀》的一項研究相矛盾，該研究稱2019年12月1日是首例已知病例的出現日期。 達扎克在尼帕病毒國際會議上接受採訪時證實，武漢病毒學研究所正在對冠狀病毒進行實驗，其中一些病毒「會在實驗室裡進入人類細胞」。 一段視頻顯示，包括田俊華在內的武漢市疾控中心的工作人員正在湖北省的蝙蝠洞中收集病毒樣本。原始視頻的拍攝日期尚不清楚。 田俊華已經一年多沒有公開講話了。 威斯特加德後來提到，武漢市官員開始關閉公立學校，以控制疾病的傳播。威斯特加德的團隊將這一信息轉達給美國駐北京大使館，並繼續觀察事態發展。 12月27日 12月31日 12月30日 12月30日 12月31日 Design_Cells/Shutterstock JOHANNES EISELE/AFP via Getty Images STR/AFP via Getty Images STR/AFP via Getty Images NOEL CELIS/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 新冠病毒（COVID-19）全基因組測序，中共拒絕與外界分享這些數據。 據報導，石正麗在被告知冠狀病毒爆發時聲稱「這種病毒最可能起源於中國南方」，而她「從未想到這種事情會發生在中國中部的武漢」。 武漢市疾控中心在兩名非典型肺炎患者身上檢測到一種新型冠狀病毒後，將患者的樣本送達武漢病毒學研究所。 59例發熱乾咳疑似病例開始被轉送到定點醫院。 武漢市衛生部門發布了流行病警報。 2020 1月4日 12月31日 12月31日 1月1日 1月3日 CHEN CHI-CHUAN/AFP via Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images STR/AFP via Getty Images FABRICE COFFRINI/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 臺灣向世界衛生組織發出警告（臺灣不是世界衛生組織成員國），指出這種新疾病可以在人與人之間傳染。這一警告未能與其它國家分享。臺灣也開始監控所有來自武漢的入境旅客。 達扎克連續發了19條推文，最後聲稱人類—野生動物—牲畜的界面可能是武漢疫情爆發的源頭。 武漢市華南海鮮市場被關閉。 中國官員向世衛組織提供了「有關在武漢發現的原因不明的病毒性肺炎聚集性病例的信息」。 世衛組織發推文稱，「中國向世衛組織報告了湖北省武漢市的聚集性肺炎病例，沒有死亡病例。目前正在進行調查，以確定該病的病因。」 1月11日 1月初 1月5日 1月7日 1月12日 STR/AFP via Getty Images Design_Cells/Shutterstoc NOEL CELIS/POOL/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image 上海公共衛生臨床中心張永振團隊在開放平台上公布了新冠病毒（COVID-19）基因組序列。據張永振的合作者霍爾姆斯透露，中國和西方科學家在一週前獲得了完整的序列，但是中共當局向他們施壓，要求他們不要發表。 霍爾姆斯成為克里斯蒂安•安德森於2020年2月16日發表的題為「SARS-CoV-2的近端起源」的論文的共同作者。 Image 據報導，在2019年12月31日發出警報後不久，中國當局組建了「一個由醫生、流行病學家、病毒學家和政府官員組成的專家小組」。 霍爾姆斯獲得了新冠病毒（COVID-19）的全基因組序列，但是由於中國當局的壓力，他並沒有公開分享。 武漢病毒學研究所獲得了新冠病毒（COVID-19）基因組序列。 在張永振教授研究組在公開平臺發布新冠病毒（COVID-19）基因組序列後第二天，上海公共衛生臨床中心實驗室被勒令關閉，進行「整改」。關閉令由上海衛生委員會發布。 The Royal Society/CC BY-SA 3.0 1月14日 1月14日 1月中旬 1月18日 1月21日 Screenshot/Twitter ALASTAIR PIKE/AFP via Getty Images ULRICH PERREY/POOL/AFP via Getty Images Kevin Frayer/Getty Images Gilead Sciences via Reuters Image Image Image Image Image 世衛組織在推特上援引中共當局的話說，沒有明確的證據表明存在人際傳播。 克里斯蒂安•安德森在推特上讚揚了中國的病毒應對措施。安德森後來在福奇創立「自然起源說」過程中扮演了重要角色。 福奇向中國捐贈瑞德西韋樣本，用於臨床試驗，測試其對新冠病毒（COVID-19）的有效性。瑞德西韋是由德特里克堡（Fort Detrick）的科學家和美國製藥公司吉利德（GILEAD）用納稅人的資金開發的。 有4萬多個家庭參加的世界上最大規模的新年宴會在武漢市人口密集的市區舉行。 武漢病毒學研究所把瑞德西韋註冊為中國專利。 1月23日 1月24日 1月30日 1月30日 1月30日 NOEL CELIS/AFP via Getty Images Jessica McGowan/Getty Images FABRICE COFFRINI/AFP via Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 武漢開始實施封鎖措施。 發表在《柳葉刀》上的一項研究表明，最初4名確診患者中，包括1號患者在內的3人沒有接觸過華南海鮮市場。全部已知患者的三分之一沒有接觸過該市場。據報導，該市場也出售屠宰的動物肉，但是沒有出售過蝙蝠。中共當局後來將該市場排除，不再作為大流行的源頭。 美國疾控中心報告了美國首例人際傳播病例。 世衛組織稱，中國境外的人際傳播已經受到了限制。 世衛組織宣布冠狀病毒爆發為全球公共衛生緊急事件。世衛組織總幹事特沃德羅斯•阿達諾姆•蓋佈雷耶蘇斯（中文名：譚德塞）說，「中國發現爆發疫情、分離病毒、測序基因組，並與世衛組織和全世界分享的速度令人印象深刻。」 FABRICE COFFRINI/AFP via Getty Images 1月31日 2月1日 2月1日 2月1日 2月3日 WANG ZHAO/AFP via Getty Images STR/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 唐納德•川普總統叫停了來自中國的航班。 安德森告訴福西的電話會議小組：他有「60%～70%」的把握確定病毒來自實驗室。霍爾姆斯告訴電話會議小組，他「有80%的把握確定病毒來自實驗室」。 祕密電話會議的時間線附後。 拜登在推特上批評了川普的旅行禁令，「我們正處於冠狀病毒危機之中，應該用科學來引路，而不是像唐納德•川普那樣歇斯底里、仇外、散布恐懼。他是領導我們國家應對全球衛生緊急情況的最差人選。」 中共官員回應川普的旅行禁令稱，「這不是事實，也沒有幫助。」中共外交部發言人華春瑩在一份聲明中表示，「許多國家通過各種方式向中國提供幫助和支持。相反，美方的言論和行動既沒有事實依據，在當前這個特殊時刻也沒有幫助。」 石正麗和她的合作者在一篇新文章中指出，武漢病毒學研究所的科學家找到了與新冠病毒（COVID-19）非常匹配的病毒。後來才發現，石正麗所說的病毒實際上就是2012年從墨江礦區提取的病毒RaBtCoV/4991。 Olivier Douliery - Pool/Getty Images Joshua Lott/Getty Images LEO RAMIREZ/AFP via Getty Images 2月3日 2月3日 2月5日 2月6日 2月7日 Howchou/CC BY-SA 3.0 STR/AFP via Getty Images 福奇、達扎克、安德森等科學家應邀參加美國國家科學、工程和醫學研究院NASEM組織的會議，以幫助確定新冠病毒（COVID-19）的起源。這次會議是應白宮科技政策辦公室主任凱爾文•德羅格梅爾的要求臨時組織的。福奇做了一個10分鐘的演講。 福奇等科學家推動「自然起源論」，但是最終在2020年2月6日NASEM回應白宮時被忽視。 Image Image 中國研究人員肖波濤和肖磊在一篇論文中指出，冠狀病毒可能來自於武漢病毒學研究所或者武漢市疾控中心。作者透露，位於距離華南海鮮市場僅900英尺的武漢市疾控中心飼養著活動物用於研究。這篇文章很快就從ResearchGate上被刪除了。 除了武漢研究所運營的實驗室外，中國疾控中心也在武漢單獨設立了以蝙蝠冠狀病毒為實驗對象的生物安全二級實驗室。 Image 世衛總幹事譚德塞發布了「總幹事報告」，其中呼籲「打擊謠言和錯誤信息傳播」。他表示，「包括推特、臉書、騰訊和抖音在內的社交媒體平臺也採取了措施，來限制虛假信息的傳播。」 武漢大學（與武漢病毒學研究所無關）的研究人員在《新出現的微生物與感染》雜誌上發表的一篇文章中說他們在一個名為RaBtCoV/4991的中國資料庫中發現了新冠病毒（COVID-19）的一個近親。後來了解到，這正是石正麗兩天前於2020年2月3日改名為RaTG13的病毒。 李文亮醫生死於新冠病毒（COVID-19）。李文亮曾試圖在網絡論壇上提醒同事注意一種神祕的新型呼吸道病毒。 FABRICE COFFRINI/AFP via Getty Images 2月7日 2月初 2月14日 2月16日 2月16日 Tomwsulcer/CC0 1.0 JOHANNES EISELE/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image 安德森、霍爾姆斯、羅伯特•加里、安德魯•蘭博特、伊恩•利普金等人的文章《SARS-CoV-2的近端起源》在網上發表，認為該病毒有自然起源。 據加里介紹，這篇文章的初稿是在2月1日完成的，當天，安德森告訴福奇的電話會議小組他有「60%~70%」的把握認定病毒來自實驗室；霍爾姆斯當時告訴小組他「有80%的把握認定病毒來自實驗室」。 利普金後來收回了自己的主張，他是唯一沒有參加福奇電話會議的人。 羅格斯大學的艾布萊特曾在2015年提醒外界注意武漢病毒學研究所，他告訴《財新網》，數據表明，病毒要麼是自然感染人類的，要麼是由於實驗室事故感染人類。 石正麗在中國社交媒體上寫道：「新型2019冠狀病毒是大自然在懲罰人類擁有不文明的生活習慣。我，石正麗，以我的生命發誓，這與我們的實驗室無關……我建議那些相信和傳播有害的媒體謠言的人，以及那些相信印度學者不可靠的所謂學術分析的人，閉上他們的臭嘴。」 中共領導人習近平呼籲加快制定新的生物安全法。 艾布萊特說，「實驗室泄露說」不可能也不應該被忽視。 Nicolas Asouri - Pool/Getty Images rutgers.edu 2月19日 2月24日 2月26日 3月11日 3月16日 LOIC VENANCE/AFP via Getty Images NICOLAS ASFOURI/AFP via Getty Images sdobie/CC BY-NC 2.0 via Flickr Win McNamee/Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 《柳葉刀》發表公開信，稱冠病毒起源於野生動物，同時譴責非自然起源的理論是陰謀論，「只會製造恐懼、謠言和偏見。」後來披露，達扎克策劃了這封信，27個簽名者中有26個與武漢病毒學研究所有關。一些簽署人後來收回了他們對這封信的支持。 中共軍方科學家申報新冠病毒（COVID-19）的疫苗專利。從中國早期開發疫苗的情況看，有人擔心，中共早在公開承認之前就知道了該病毒。 參加過福奇祕密電話會議的馬里恩•庫普曼斯在荷蘭電視台的節目上承認，在中國，冠狀病毒正在被「改變」、「修改」、「添加」。 石正麗告訴《科學美國人》雜誌，她最初擔心病毒可能來自她在武漢病毒學研究所的實驗室。石正麗說，當結果出來時，她鬆了一口氣，沒有一個序列與她的團隊從蝙蝠洞穴中採集的病毒相匹配，「那真的減輕了我的負擔……我已經幾天沒合眼了。」當被問及墨江礦區的情況時，石正麗說礦工染病和死亡都是由一種無關的真菌感染引起的。 川普宣布「15天內減緩疫情蔓延」。 HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images 3月16日 3月17日 4月8日 4月15日 4月16日 Kevin Frayer/Getty Images uibk.ac.at LOIC VENANCE/AFP via Getty Images Samira Bouaou/The Epoch Times Frederick M. Brown/Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 奧地利因斯布魯克大學的生物工程師羅薩娜•塞戈列多指出RaBtCoV/4991病毒在石正麗那裡保存了七年，是一個精確匹配新冠病毒（COVID-19）最近的親戚。石正麗在2020年2月3日發表的論文中將病毒重命名為RaTG13，掩蓋了病毒的來源。 安德森於2020年2月16日發表的文章《近端起源》在《自然》雜誌上再次發表，聲稱這種病毒有自然起源。其中一位作者後來撤回了他的聲明，聲稱他並不知道武漢病毒學研究所在一個生物安全條件不足的實驗室裡研究蝙蝠病毒。 中國解除了對武漢的封鎖。 川普總統表示，他看到的信息表明疫情始於武漢病毒學研究所。 據美國全國廣播公司財經頻道CNBC報導，情報部門「正在調查導致全球大流行的病毒是否偶然從中國研究蝙蝠疾病的實驗室裡出現」。據報導，情報機構已經「排除」了病毒是「人為的」可能性。 4月17日 4月17日 4月20日-24日 4月24日 4月27日 Charlotte Cuthbertson/The Epoch Times PAUL J. RICHARDS/AFP via Getty Images Sharaf Maksumov/Shutterstock HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 國務卿邁克•蓬佩奧暗示這場大流行始於武漢病毒學研究所。 福奇援引安德森的論文《近端起源》（參見2020年2月16日），否認了病毒來自實驗室的可能性，並聲稱不記得安德森的名字。 川普命令國家安全局和國防情報局調查大流行的起源。後來才知道，情報部門諮詢的專家之一就是達扎克。 川普終止了達扎克在武漢病毒學研究所的研究經費。 儘管川普取消了經費，福奇還是很快於2020年8月27日贈給了達扎克一筆更大的資金。 一段視頻被上傳至YouTube網站，視頻中顯示武漢病毒學研究所的場地的廢棄環境和垃圾堆積。 uibk.ac.at 5月1日 5月4日 4月30日 4月30日 5月18日 WANG ZHAO/AFP via Getty Images documentcloud.org Image 在白宮的一次活動中，川普再次暗示武漢的一個實驗室可能有泄漏。當被問及他是否看到了病毒起源於武漢實驗室的證據時，川普回答說，「是的，我看到了。」當被問及具體細節時，川普說，「我不能告訴你。我不可以告訴你這些。」 除了武漢病毒學研究所運營的實驗室外，中國疾控中心也在武漢另外設立了一個以蝙蝠冠狀病毒為實驗對象的生物安全二級實驗室。 Image Image Image 美國情報部門發表聲明，稱病毒可能是「自然產生」的。 《柳葉刀》總編出現在中國官方媒體上，讚揚了中國政府應對病毒的措施，並否定了「實驗室泄漏論」。 福奇說，沒有科學證據表明這種病毒是「在中國實驗室」製造的，並補充說他認為病毒被帶到實驗室與逃逸以及病毒在自然界中擴散沒有區別。 一位網民找到了一篇2013年的中國碩士論文，其中提到了墨江三名死亡礦工，還談到中國「薩斯英雄」鍾南山醫生被請來診斷這種新疾病。論文的結論是：礦工們死於馬蹄蝠感染的一種類似薩斯的冠狀病毒。此外，一篇2016年的中國博士論文被發現，證實了武漢病毒學研究所的一個團隊從墨江礦區收集了蝙蝠樣本。 dni.gov U.S. Mission Geneva/Eric Bridiers 5月25日 6月3日 6月16日 7月13日 7月15日 JOHANNES EISELE/AFP via Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images medschool.duke.edu Droneandy/Shutterstock Image Image Image Image Image 從華南海鮮市場採集的動物樣本均為SARS-CoV-2陰性。中國疾病預防控制中心主任高福說，「起初我們認為海鮮市場可能感染了病毒，但是現在市場更像是一個受害者。新型冠狀病毒很早以前就存在了。」 英國前軍情六處處長理查德•迪爾洛夫說，他認為病毒是從中國的一個實驗室泄露的，泄露的證據可能已經被中共當局銷毀。 石正麗的合作者王林發在接受《國家地理》雜誌採訪時顯然談到了墨江礦區三名礦工的死亡，「當我們阻止了小規模疫情時，人們並不關心，得不到媒體的關注……比如在武漢，如果有三人死亡，疫情得到控制，我們會知道嗎？不會。這種情況一直在發生。在偏遠的村莊，有人死了，你把他們埋了，故事就結束了，對吧？」 歐洲科學家的一篇論文提供了證據，證明SARS-CoV-2是被設計的。 石正麗在《科學》雜誌上發表了一份冗長的聲明，否認病毒來自她的實驗室。 Cate Gillon/Getty Images 8月27日 8月7日 8月7日 9月14日 11月7日 nbcnews.com/ HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image NBC新聞是自疫情爆發以來第一個獲准進入武漢病毒學研究所的外國新聞機構。在採訪中，中共官員「強烈（否認）該病毒可能起源於該研究所」，並聲稱「該研究所的科學家在該疾病開始在公眾中傳播後獲得了第一批冠狀病毒樣本」。 達扎克否認病毒可能是從武漢病毒學研究所泄露出來的。他承認他在該研究所工作了16年。 安德森和達扎克從福奇的NIAID得到了大量的資助。 目前尚不清楚為什麼在川普於2020年4月24日終止之前的資助後，福奇又將這筆新的、更大的資助授予達扎克。 據報導，達扎克的資助累計達750萬美元。 拉爾夫•巴里克是2015年11月發表的由NIAID資助的論文的作者之一，該論文引發了對武漢病毒學研究所實驗的大流行風險的警告。他告訴意大利電視臺：「你可以設計一種病毒而不留下任何痕跡。然而，你想要尋找的答案，只能在武漢實驗室的檔案中找到。」 達扎克在網上祝賀拜登當選，並期待與石正麗一起喝（中國的）白酒。 sph.unc.edu lex Edelman-Pool/Getty Images 12月10日 12月21日 2021 1月 2月9日 11月17日 STEEVE JORDAN/AFP via Getty Images LIONEL BONAVENTURE/AFP via Getty Images NOEL CELIS/AFP via Getty Images STR/AFP via Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 石正麗為2020年2月3日發表的一篇文章發表了一份附錄，承認2012年至2015年採集的蝙蝠樣本實際上來自墨江礦區。她還承認，在2020年2月3日的論文中，她將與新冠病毒（COVID-19）接近的親戚RaBtCoV/4991更名為RaTG13。 達扎克在推特上寫道，沒有蝙蝠被帶到武漢病毒學研究所。隨後他刪除了那條推文。 英國廣播公司BBC駐中國特派記者報導說，他在進入墨江礦區的過程中多次遭到中共當局的阻撓。 在丹麥電視臺稍後播出的一次電話會議上，世衛組織病毒溯源首席研究員彼得•本•安巴雷克表示，武漢疾病預防控制中心在處理冠狀病毒時「可能沒有展現出同等的專業水平或安全性，誰知道呢？」 安巴雷克後來指出，大流行「很可能是由武漢的一個實驗室的一名員工開始的」。 世衛組織的正式報告中沒有包含這些信息。 安巴雷克在武漢舉行了新聞發布會，聲稱病毒是自然起源，聲稱實驗室泄露的假設「極其不可能」。 2月14日 2月9日 2月12日 2月12日 3月30日 HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 漢堡大學的羅蘭德•維森丹格發表了一項研究，追蹤了在過去10年裡武漢病毒學研究所的蝙蝠病毒實驗如何與該研究所出現的新冠病毒（COVID-19）相一致。 達扎克在世衛組織武漢記者招待會結束後，以非正式的方式對記者們說華南海鮮市場是新冠病毒的起源。 《華爾街日報》的一篇文章指出，中國當局拒絕向世衛組織調查人員提供有關新冠病毒（COVID-19）早期病例的原始數據。 譚德塞表示，「所有的假設都擺在桌面上了。」 世衛組織發布《世衛組織召集全球SARS-CoV-2溯源研究：中國部分》報告。實驗室事故被認為是「極不可能」發生的。 譚德塞表示，他認為世衛組織的評估還不夠全面。 FABRICE COFFRINI/AFP via Getty Images uni-hamburg.de Page 3 5月14日 5月14日 3月30日 5月2日 5月7日 Go Nakamura/Getty Images Samuel Corum/Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 美國和其它13個國家政府呼籲「對新冠病毒（COVID-19）大流行的根源進行透明和獨立的分析和評估，不受干擾和不當影響」。 前《紐約時報》科學編輯尼古拉斯•韋德發表了一篇文章，敘述了實驗室泄露的情況。 美國前國務卿邁克•蓬佩奧對福克斯電視臺下屬網絡表示，他「已經看到大量證據表明最可能的最初傳播點是武漢病毒學研究所」。 據報導，美國國會共和黨人至少對實驗室泄露說法進行了兩次調查。 包括石正麗的合作夥伴拉爾夫•巴里克在內的18位著名科學家在《科學》雜誌上發表公開信，要求調查和考慮實驗室泄露假說。 Jane Gitschier/CC BY 2.5 Samira Bouaou/The Epoch Times sph.unc.edu 5月24日 5月17日 5月24日 5月26日 5月30日 Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images STR/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 利普金是安德森「近端起源」信件的共同署名人，他表示，對於該病毒是否來自武漢病毒學研究所，現在已經改變了看法，「這本不該發生……人們不應該在BSL-2實驗室裡觀察蝙蝠病毒。」 據《華爾街日報》報導，中共當局在通往雲南省某一礦區的路上設立了檢查站，一名《華爾街日報》記者在該地區騎山地自行車時被拘留。2012年，這裡有三名礦工死於類似新冠病毒（COVID-19）的症狀。 拜登政府宣布擴大對新冠病毒（COVID-19）的溯源調查。 白宮記者協會前主席喬納森•卡爾聲稱，媒體否認實驗室泄露的說法是因為唐納德•川普支持這一說法。 川普說，他幾乎可以肯定病毒是從武漢的一個實驗室泄露出來的。 SAUL LOEB/AFP via Getty Images Samira Bouaou/The Epoch Times publichealth.columbia.edu 6月 6月4日 6月8日 6月13日 6月13日 Lauren DeCicca/Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Image Image Image Image Image 安巴雷克告訴丹麥電視臺TV2，實驗室泄漏假說很可能是正確的，他說，「一名實驗室員工在蝙蝠洞中採集樣本時感染了病毒，這種情況既支持實驗室泄漏假說，也支持我們的第一個蝙蝠直接感染人類的假說。我們已經把這個假說看作一個可能的假說。」 這一信息沒有出現在世衛組織的報告中，安巴雷克此前曾公開表示，實驗室泄漏「可能性極小」。 福奇承認，該病毒可能來自武漢病毒學研究所的實驗室泄漏。 當被問及病毒的來源時，美國國務卿安東尼•布林肯呼籲，應該對在中國「所發生的事情」以及「中國未能合作」進行追責。 天空新聞發布了在武漢病毒學研究所的實驗室內飼養活蝙蝠的錄像。 拜登在七國集團峰會上承認，新冠病毒（COVID-19）可能是實驗室實驗失敗的結果。 BRENDAN SMIALOWSKI/AFP via Getty Images Drew Angerer/Getty Images Mark Makela/Getty Images 6月18日 6月21日 7月16日 8月12日 8月27日 HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images LOIC VENANCE/AFP/GettyImages Image Image Image Image Image 病毒學家傑西•布魯姆發表了一篇論文，揭示華南海鮮市場不是大流行的源頭。依據是應一名中國研究人員的要求從美國國家衛生研究院資料庫中刪除後恢復的數據。 《柳葉刀》為達扎克2020年2月19日的信補充發表了一份附錄，證實達扎克捲入了利益衝突。 法勒說，安德森最初有60%到70%的把握認為病毒來自實驗室。法勒說，安德森後來改變了想法，斷定病毒是自然起源的。 法勒的說法忽略了一個事實：安德森於2020年1月31日私下告訴福奇病毒是人工製造的，但是在公開場合卻說病毒不是人工製造的。 安德森於2020年8月27日從福奇的NIAID那裡獲得了巨額資助。 安巴雷克的採訪於2021年6月在丹麥電視臺播出，他在採訪時說中國科學家和官員隱瞞了信息，並向世衛組織特派小組施壓，要求放棄實驗室泄露論。在與中國當局進行了48小時的討論後，他們同意允許提及實驗室泄露論，但是前提條件是「我們不建議對該說法做進一步研究」，而且要說該說法「可能性極低」。 世衛組織的正式報告中沒有包含這些信息。 美國國家情報總監公開了情報部門對新冠病毒（COVID-19）起源的評估摘要。該報告沒有得出結論，認為「自然接觸受感染動物和與實驗室相關的事件」兩者都是可信的。 fredhutch.org dni.gov Wellcome Trust, Wellcome Images/CC BY 4.0 祕密 電話會議 高級官員試圖掩蓋美國曾參與資助武漢病毒學研究所並與其合作 2020年1月31日 5點57分 7點38分 美國東部時間下午5點23分 5點34分 6點20分 Image Image Image Image Image 安東尼•福奇博士收到了一封來自杰里米•法勒的電子郵件，他是英國一家非營利組織的負責人，請求「今晚」與福奇交談。福奇的助理帕特麗夏•康拉德安排了通話。 福奇回覆法勒，「馬上給你打電話……」之後不久，福奇和法勒顯然通了電話。 法勒隨後發了一封電子郵件，讓福奇打電話給斯克里普斯研究中心Scripps Research的教授克里斯蒂安•安德森。法勒告訴福奇，將與他通話的三個人是安德森、鮑勃•加里和埃迪•霍爾姆斯。這三人後來寫了《SARS-CoV-2的近端起源》的信，駁斥了實驗室泄露理論。 發表在《科學》雜誌上的一篇文章對武漢病毒學研究所進行的實驗表示擔憂。這篇文章間接鏈接到了2015年《自然》雜誌上的一篇文章，該文詳細介紹了該研究所的一位主任石正麗所做的功能獲得實驗。石正麗的研究得到了福奇所屬國家衛生研究院NIH以及他領導的國家過敏症及傳染病研究所NIAID的資助。 福奇給法勒發了一封電子郵件，標題是「電話」，並且抄送了安德森。（註：這封電子郵件依據《信息自由法》FOIA公布的文件全部做了編輯。） Drew Angerer/Getty Images Wellcome Trust, Wellcome Images/CC BY 4.0 Alex Wong/Getty Images scripps.edu LOIC VENANCE/AFP via Getty Images 8點43分 9點46分 9點47分 9點49分 10點32分 Image Image Image Image Image 美國國家衛生研究院NIH的格雷格•福克斯通過電子郵件把2020年發表在《科學》雜誌上的文章發給了福奇。福奇將福克斯的電子郵件轉發給多方。 福奇把2020年《科學》雜誌上的這篇文章轉發給了NIAID的約翰•馬斯克拉。 福奇把2020年《科學》雜誌上的這篇文章轉發給了法勒和安德森。 福奇把2020年《科學》雜誌上的這篇文章轉發給了美國衛生與公眾服務部HHS負責防範和應對事務的助理部長辦公室的羅伯特•卡德萊克。 安德森回覆了福奇的電子郵件，承認病毒的特徵可能是經過設計的。然而，當天早些時候，安德森曾發了一條推特，拒絕了參議員湯姆•科頓（阿肯色州共和黨籍）提出的該病毒可能來自武漢病毒學研究所的說法。法勒後來透露，安德森最初有60%到70%的把握認為病毒來自實驗室。 Wellcome Trust, Wellcome Images/CC BY 4.0 niaid.nih.gov Sarah Silbiger/Getty Images hiv.gov scripps.edu 2020年2月1日 7點29分1秒 7點29分36秒 8點19分 10點34分 美國東部時間上午5點55分 Image Image Image Image Image 法勒給福奇發了一封電子郵件，邀請他和精選的一組人參加當天的電話會議。提議的與會者包括福奇、法勒、安德森、加里和霍爾姆斯，還有克里斯蒂安•德羅斯滕、羅恩•富希耶、馬里恩•庫普曼斯和帕特里克•瓦蘭斯。 法勒寫道：「我希望保持這個緊密的團隊，聽聽埃迪、鮑勃和克里斯蒂安的工作，提出問題，然後考慮下一步，顯然要求每個人都能夠完全信任。」 福奇把這篇2015年發表在《自然》雜誌上的文章發給了他的副手休•奧金克洛斯，他寫道，「休：我們有必要討論這篇文章。把手機開著，我早上7點45分要和阿扎開電話會議，可能會在上午8點45分結束。請閱讀這篇文章，還有我現在就轉發給你的電子郵件。你今天會有必須完成的任務。謝謝你，托尼。」 35秒後，福奇給奧金克洛斯發送了《科學》雜誌上的那篇文章，並留言「參照我之前的郵件」。 福奇把2015年發表在《自然》雜誌上的那篇文章發給了NIH的勞倫斯•塔巴克，並在電子郵件上標記「重要」。 法勒群發了一封電子郵件，宣布在下午2點召開電話會議，並附上了議程，列出了需要在「完全保密」的情況下討論出「期待的結果」。包括法勒在內，共有13人被列在電話會議的議程上。 Stefani Reynolds-Pool/Getty Images nih.gov Tero Vesalainen/Shutterstock NIAID University of Exeter from United Kingdom/CC BY 2.0 11點47分 1點13分 下午12點51分 1點12分 10點48分 Image Image Image Image Image 福奇給法勒發了一封電子郵件，告訴他，他在美國國家衛生研究院NIH的老闆弗朗西斯•柯林斯也將參加這次電話會議。 福奇還告訴法勒，柯林斯「正在給你打電話」。 奧金克洛斯在另一封郵件中回覆了福奇，「你發給我的論文說，這些實驗是在獲得功能暫停之前進行的，但是已經得到了NIH的審查和批准。不知道這意味著什麼，因為艾米麗確定，沒有任何冠狀病毒工作曾經通過P3框架。她將設法確定我們是否與國外的這項工作有任何遠親關係。」 福奇答覆奧金克洛斯，「好吧，請繼續關注。」 法勒向電話會議小組發送電子郵件，並附上附件，標題：冠狀病毒序列比較（1）.pdf 法勒寫道：「克里斯汀和埃迪分享了這個信息，並將在電話會議上討論。謝謝你們！希望它能為我們的討論提供框架。」 法勒發送了一封電子郵件，主題是「電話會議」，召集小組電話會議。 Stefani Reynolds-Pool/Getty Images RODGER BOSCH/AFP via Getty Images Marcin Janiec/Shutterstock Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images Lauren DeCicca/Getty Images 1點34分 1點43分 1點43分 2點 2點9分 Image Image Image Image Image 福奇給塔巴克發了一封電子郵件，提醒他要開電話會議。 馬里恩•庫普曼斯負責監管一個荷蘭實驗室，該實驗室之前曾參與過功能獲得實驗。庫普曼斯給法勒發了一封電子郵件，並抄送給福奇和其他與會成員。（庫普曼斯的電子郵件的主體被完全編輯過了。） 福奇回覆安德森的電子郵件（內容是病毒的特徵看上去可能是經過設計的）：「謝謝，克里斯蒂安。我們將在電話中討論。」 電話會議開始。 安德森告訴電話會議小組，他有「60%到70%」的把握認為病毒來自實驗室。霍爾姆斯告訴電話會議小組，他有「80%的把握認為病毒來自實驗室」。 據羅伯特•加里的介紹，推動「自然起源論」的《近端起源》論文的初稿也是在這一天完成的。該論文的五位作者中有四位參加了電話會議。 一位電話會議的與會者給其他與會者發郵件說，「我們也需要討論骨幹，而不僅僅是插件，對吧？」 kpatyhka/Shutterstock Droneandy/Shutterstock Stefani Reynolds-Pool/Getty Images HECTOR RETAMAL/AFP via Getty Images Kevin Dietsch-Pool/Getty Images 2點56分 3點3分 3點7分 3點7分以後 3點50分 Image Image Image Image Image 法勒給包括福奇在內的13名通話人員中的4人發了一封電子郵件，寫道：「我能建議我們先挂斷電話再重新撥嗎？就5到10分鐘？」 福奇通過電子郵件回覆法勒，只寫了「是的」。 法勒似乎已經重新加入了通話，他發送了一封電子郵件，上面寫著（有點讓人困惑）「我已經重新加入了，如果有必要，可以重新撥號加入，電話是開著的。」 電話會議結束。 國家衛生研究院NIH院長柯林斯給法勒發了一封電子郵件，提到了世衛組織總幹事特沃德羅斯•阿達諾姆•蓋布雷耶蘇斯（譚德塞）：「你好，杰里米，我可以7天24小時隨時與譚德塞通電話。你只要告訴我就行了。感謝你在這個關鍵而敏感的問題上發揮的組織領導作用。弗朗西斯」 Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images TippaPatt/Shutterstock Tero Vesalainen/Shutterstock RODGER BOSCH/AFP via Getty Images Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images 2020年2月2日 3點59分 4點 5點6分 早上3點30分 3點40分 Image Image Image Image Image 法勒在電話會議結束後發了一封郵件說，「這裡面顯然有很多東西需要理解。這個電話會議非常有幫助，讓我們聽到了我們目前的一些理解以及我們認識上的許多差距。」（後面的內容編輯幅度很大。）法勒最後說，「我希望這是一個合理的方法，請大家發送任何想法或建議。」 法勒給柯林斯回了一封電子郵件，抄送了福奇，說「如你所知，我們在一起，和你、托尼、帕特里克等人交談，和你們倆一起工作，總是很棒。」 福奇給法勒發了一封電子郵件：「謝謝你！杰里米，我們非常感謝你所做的一切。很高興和你一起工作。祝好！托尼。」 荷蘭病毒學家羅恩•富希耶向未知的收件人發送了一封電子郵件，感謝法勒召集了「有用的電話會議」，並附上了一個標題為「羅恩筆記」的一部分。（這部分筆記的篇幅超過兩頁，並且完全經過了編輯。） 法勒回覆富希耶：「謝謝你，羅恩。」（以下段落已經過編輯。）接著寫道：「非常歡迎你的想法。」 Reddavebatcave/Shutterstock TippaPatt/Shutterstock Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images erasmusmc.nl Wellcome Trust/CC BY 4.0 4點48分 4點48分 4點48分 7點13分 4點38分 Image Image Image Image Image 英國生物學家安德魯•朗博給電話會議組發了一封電子郵件：「親愛的杰里米、羅恩和所有人，謝謝你們昨天邀請我參加電話會議。」（大段落的其餘部分經過了編輯。）落款是：「祝好！安德魯」 法勒回覆朗博並轉發電話會議小組：「這是一個非常複雜的問題，我將（大段編輯）。」法勒在郵件結尾建議與會者把這個「複雜的問題」拿到線下討論。法勒還建議成立一個新的小組，「我建議我們不要在這裡做進一步的科學討論，而要等待建立一個新的小組。杰里米」 柯林斯給法勒發送了一封電子郵件，同時抄送福奇和塔巴克，內容是可能與世衛組織譚德塞會面，「除了東部時間下午3:15-5:45（在飛機上），我今天任何時間都可以給譚德塞打電話。如果需要我幫助聯繫他，就請告訴我。」 柯林斯給法勒發了一封電子郵件，並抄送福奇和塔巴克：「謝謝你轉發邁克和鮑勃的這些附加意見。」（本段其餘部分進行了編輯。） 柯林斯給法勒發了一封電子郵件，並抄送福奇和塔巴克：「非常欣慰我們考慮了這麼多選項……」（下一行是編輯過的。） Graeme Jennings-Pool/Getty Images Reddavebatcave/Shutterstock ESB Professional/Shutterstock FABRICE COFFRINI/AFP via Getty Images PaulPaladin/Shutterstock 2020年2月3日 2月3日 2月3日 10點30分 11點49分 10點28分 Image 法勒給福奇和柯林斯發了一封電子郵件，並抄送塔巴克，裡面有一篇發表在ZeroHedge上的文章的鏈接，說，「譚德塞和伯恩哈德顯然正在開祕密會議……在我看來，他們需要今天就做出決定。如果他們推諉，我希望今晚晚些時候或明天能給你打個電話，考慮一下我們該如何採取行動，與此同時……」一天後，2020年2月3日，ZeroHedge被推特封殺。 Image Image Image 福奇回覆法勒和柯林斯，並抄送塔巴克：「杰里米：對不起，我花了這麼長時間來考慮你與弗朗西斯和我的電子郵件。我參加了電話會議。」（接下來的一大段被編輯了。） 福奇給柯林斯發了一封電子郵件，「弗朗西斯，你有時間打個電話嗎？托尼。」 譚德塞公開表示，「（我們必須）打擊謠言和錯誤信息的傳播。」 ZeroHedge遭推特封殺。 Ascannio/Shutterstock FABRICE COFFRINI/AFP via Getty Images Mark Wilson/Getty Images WIN MCNAMEE/POOL/AFP via Getty Images 2020年2月4日 下午3點26分 2月4日 凌晨1點33分 2月3日 2點1分 Image Image Image Image Image 福奇、達扎克、安德森等科學家應邀參加美國國家科學、工程和醫學研究院NASEM組織的會議，「以幫助確定新冠病毒（COVID-19）的起源」。這次會議是應白宮科技政策辦公室主任凱爾文•德羅格梅爾的要求臨時組織的。福奇做了一個10分鐘的演講。 福奇等科學家推動「自然起源論」。 霍爾姆斯在給法勒的電子郵件中寫道：「這是我們到目前為止的總結，還需要進一步編輯。」 「這是基礎科學，完全中立，不要提其它異常現象，否則會讓我們看起來像笨蛋。我認為這是一門優秀的基礎科學，它本身就是一種服務。」 「我們會盡快完成的。」 法勒把霍爾姆斯的電子郵件轉發給了福奇和柯林斯，並附上了附件：Summary.docx 法勒寫道，「請保密。這是埃迪及其團隊的一份非常粗糙的初稿，他們稍後會把整理好的版本發給你。」 「今天再次推動世衛組織。」 因為霍爾姆斯最初建議隱藏異常情況（「不要提其它異常現象，否則會讓我們看起來像笨蛋」），後來的幾封電子郵件都被大量的編輯，法勒給柯林斯和福奇發了電子郵件，只說：「狂野的西部……」 NASEM的安德魯•波普向於2月3日參加NASEM會議的科學家們徵求給白宮官員德羅格梅爾的回覆的草案的意見。 安德森回答道，「目前流行的主要荒誕理論認為這種病毒是故意設計的，但是可以證明並非如此。設計可以意味著很多事情，可以作為基礎研究，也可以被邪惡利用，但是歸根結底，數據表明，兩種目標都未實現。」 計算生物學家特雷弗•貝德福德說：「1. 我不會在這裡提到細胞結合點。如果你開始掂量證據，那麼兩種情況都有很多方面值得考慮。2. 我想說『沒有基因工程的證據』，句號完了。」 Reddavebatcave/Shutterstock TippaPatt/Shutterstock The Royal Society/CC BY-SA 3.0 EQRoy/Shutterstock scripps.edu 2020年2月6日 2020年2月7日 2020年2月5日 凌晨1點21分 2月5日 2月6日 上午10點5分 Image Image Image Image 法勒在發給柯林斯、福奇和維康信託基金會的喬西•戈爾丁的電子郵件中寫道： 「今天上午我再次與世衛組織進行了交談。我相信他們已經接受並採取了行動。」 「在下週的世衛組織會議上他們將成立工作組『研究2019冠狀病毒的起源和演變』。」 「我們的名字將被提交給小組，下週你們和我們的團隊將對這個小組施加壓力。」 達扎克正在私下傳遞一封信，駁斥有關實驗室起源的指控，稱其為陰謀論。 他告訴這封信的潛在簽署人，希望NASEM的回覆能支持「自然起源論」。 他打算第二天在《柳葉刀》上發表這封信。 美國國家科學院正式回覆了白宮2月3日提出的請求，表示要想確定病毒的來源還需要進一步的資料。雖然在初期福西等科學家們進行了努力，但是科學院對白宮的回覆最終版本中沒有提到「自然起源論」。 由於國家科學院NASEM的反應出乎意料，達扎克在《柳葉刀》上發表的公開信被推遲到了2月19日。 在NASEM的安德魯•波普對福西小組推動的「自然起源論」選擇置之不理後，法勒發了電子郵件給NASEM的維克托•曹，他是2月6日給白宮回信的作者之一。 法勒寫道，「在過去10天裡，一個關係密切的組織一直在研究這個問題，可能有一些信息可以分享，可能會有幫助。」 Uppsala Health Summit/CC BY 3.0 Ruben Sprich/Reuters EQRoy/Shutterstock FABRICE COFFRINI/AFP via Getty Images

Glucofort Reviews

Glucofort Reviews: Does It Work? What to Know First Before Buy Friday, October 1, 2021 3:35pm NATIONAL MARKETPLACE A high level of blood sugar is a concerning health issue affecting a vast number of people. This can be because of a poor lifestyle, genetics, or lack of physical movement. The blood sugar level increases and causes damage to other body organs if left uncontrolled for a longer period. Patients who wish to overcome this health issue can choose the natural supplement GlucoFort and get positive results. Glucofort is a herbal and natural dietary supplement to maintain healthy blood sugar in the body. It contains a beneficiary formula that claims to help in keeping the glucose levels at the normal range. It not only gives support to decrease blood sugar but also helps increase insulin production in the body. So, does this supplement can help in controlling the glucose levels of the body? Here, we will review the product and find out all the bits and pieces of information about its use, ingredients, benefits, side effects, price, and many more. Glucofort, reviewed in the IPS News here, is a natural health supplement that may help you in lowering the influence of diabetes. This all-natural supplement helps revitalize the affected body, lowers the sugar levels in the blood, and burns the accumulated body fat. Plus, this new natural and herbal formula comes in a container pack in capsule form. Each dose ensures to eliminate piling up of sugar molecules in the blood. In addition, the organic ingredients present in Glucofort helps to get rid of potential health risks. How Does Glucofort Work? During diabetes, the blood sugar levels increase and reach an abnormal level from which it begins to accumulate inside the body in the form of fat molecules. Over the years, it leads to the cause of obesity and other harmful health diseases. According to the Glucofort website, this all-natural supplement helps to target specific molecules, called ceramide, that stimulate the fat molecules in accumulating and firming the arteries. However, it is to remember that these fat molecules are hazardous for your body. The reason being that they can damage other vital organs, including the liver, heart, and pancreas. The Glucofort capsules target the ceramide molecules and eliminate them from the inside system. Subsequently, when the ceramide levels decrease, the fat accumulation around the other organs tends to lessen. After that, the pancreas again becomes productive in regulating the incoming sugar molecules in the body. Again, the vitamins and minerals present in the Glucofort formula supplement the body with vital nutrients. The nutrient-packed formula boosts flushing out of the toxins from the body and restores the blood cells. Additionally, it claims to nourish vital organs and reduces the threat of cardiovascular disease. When you consume this product consistently, you will observe how your body naturally utilizes the excess glucose. What are the Ingredients in Glucofort? The Glucofort formula includes a proprietary blend of natural ingredients, including trees, berries, roots, bark, and plants. Each of these ingredients is a derivation of the Tibetan Culture, where they blend all these and drink them as herbal tea. Although these ingredients are hard to obtain by international users, Glucofort makes it easy by bringing them together in capsules. Now, let us have a look at the ingredients and their benefits. Guggul Guggul or Mukul Myrrh is an Indian-origin ingredient. Its potent properties are available in the resin that helps to improve both cholesterol levels and triglycerides. Thus, it plays a substantial role in lowering the risk of prediabetic and acquiring diabetes phase. Bitter Melon Perhaps one of the ancient ingredients used to fight abnormal blood sugar levels in the history of Indian and African medicines. Bitter Melon is a real plant that is rich in vitamin C and comes with several benefits. It claims to stimulate insulin activity in the body and reduce glucose levels. Therefore, Glucofort uses this natural plant to regulate glucose levels in the body. Licorice Root Licorice is a type of flowering plant that is full of antioxidants. Their roots are beneficial in the prevention and reversion of diabetes symptoms. In addition, it acts as a natural sweetener in the formula and improves heart health, insulin response, and reduces fat. Gymnema Sylvestre Gymnema Sylvestre is a vital ingredient of the Glucofort supplement that protects people from diabetes and other complications related to the disease. Cinnamon Cinnamon is a flavourful ingredient used in several meals and drinks to enhance its aroma. The formula of Glucofort comprises this ingredient because it can improve glucose levels and reduce blood triglycerides. Besides, cinnamon is great for handling insulin resistance in patients with diabetes. Yarrow Extract The extracts of yarrow flowers stimulate insulin production inside the body and fight against high blood sugar levels. As a result, it provides adequate insulin to metabolize the sugar molecules that circulate in the blood. Cayenne Pepper Cayenne Pepper has loads of capsaicin in it that mainly boosts to reduce fat layers from the body. As a result, this ingredient helps to cure obesity and energies the body in the process. Juniper Berries The lookalikes of blueberries, juniper berries contain extraordinary benefits. It provides relief from high sugar levels, reduces cholesterol, and improves heart complications. L-taurine This amino acid can boost fat absorption and prevent accumulating around the pancreas. Further, it discourages any disturbance in the production of insulin and offers relief from diabetes symptoms. White Mulberry White mulberry works effectively in controlling symptoms of diabetes and prevents sugar accumulation in the arteries. Miscellaneous Ingredients Apart from the important ingredients, Glucofort uses other ingredients in its formula. Biotin (300mcg) Magnesium (125mg) Chromium (76mcg) Vitamin C (50mg) Vitamin E (15mg) Zinc (7.5mg) Manganese (1mg) The official website of Glucofort claims to derive its ingredients only from natural sources and use no chemical stimulants to intensify the effects. image 1 How to Consume Glucofort Using this natural supplement is simple and convenient. The brand asks you to consider Glucofort as a daily multivitamin capsule. As this health supplement comes in a capsule shape, you may consume it every day by gulping a capsule with a glass of water in the evening. Is it safe to use? Are there any Underlying Side Effects? Each of the ingredients is FDA certified and made following the GMP standards. The manufacturer avoids using fillers, chemicals, or stimulants in the composition. Hence, they are likely to be a safe supplement. However, the brand emphasizes the varying results on different users. Furthermore, most reviews online state that it is a safe supplement that may not have any side effects when consumed following the official guidelines. Who Can Use and Not Use Glucofort Glucofort supplement is suitable for adults of all genders. Nonetheless, Glucofort works better for middle-aged consumers who are prone to the risk of acquiring imbalance levels of sugar and diabetes type 2. Since this is a health supplement for 18+ and above, underage people must refrain from using it. Similarly, people dealing with underlying ailments, including heart disease, must consult with their physician before including this product in their daily routine. Here is a list of groups of people who cannot take this product. Underage People The brand clearly states that Glucofort is a natural health supplement for adult use only. Hence, all individuals below 18 years of age must avoid taking these capsules even if they are diagnosed with diabetes. Pregnant and Nursing Woman All women out there who have currently conceived or breastfeeding their baby should not consume Glucofort supplements. It is ideal to consult your doctor to get suggestions about your sugar imbalance complication. As this two-period is particularly delicate, you must take the advice of a relevant doctor instead of consuming this diabetes supplement. If you have been diagnosed with co-existing diseases, it is better to consult a physician before you choose to incorporate this into your daily routine. Otherwise, Glucofort may deteriorate their condition. If you are already under-prescribed or non-prescribed medication, you must avoid it without consulting your physician. Consumption of these capsules may cross-react to the other drugs and put your life at risk. If you are allergic to any ingredients present in the composition of Glucofort, avoid the supplement. It may otherwise result in allergic reactions. Purchase GlucoFort Glucofort is not available in stores. You can order it from their official website https://glucofort.com/ and treat your disease. You can get exciting deals on the products. Although the price of Glucofort is higher, the official website runs amazing deals on their products. Currently, the basic 30 days supply bottle costs $69, the premium 180 days supply bottle costs $49, and the popular 90 days supply bottle costs $59 after discount. image 2 What is the Glucofort return policy? Glucofort product offers an easy 60-day money-back return policy if the supplement does not work in favor. Contact the customer service team with questions; customers can do so by direct messaging at: https://glucofort.com/pages/contact/ Final Thoughts Glucofort is an all-natural supplement that users can consume daily to help stabilize blood sugar levels, as per recommended doses. So, if you are an adult who needs help controlling blood sugar, and is tired of spending thousands, try Glucofort. Consume the product for a month at least and see how well it works for you. Otherwise, you can ask for a refund. More Like This: Gluco20 Reviews – Blood Sugar Fix Supplement Scam or Legit? Affiliate Disclosure: The links contained in this product review may result in a small commission if you opt to purchase the product recommended at no additional cost to you. This goes towards supporting our research and editorial team and please know we only recommend high quality products. Disclaimer: Please understand that any advice or guidelines revealed here are not even remotely a substitute for sound medical advice from a licensed healthcare provider. Make sure to consult with a professional physician before making any purchasing decision if you use medications or have concerns following the review details shared above. Individual results may vary as the statements made regarding these products have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. The efficacy of these products has not been confirmed by FDA-approved research. These products are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease.

Victor Lin .Ph.D.,Assistant Professor of...Jazz Studies ,Faculty of COLUMBIA COLLEGE

The Administration and Faculty of Columbia College COLUMBIA COLLEGE http://bulletin.columbia.edu/columbia-college/administration-faculty-columbia-college/ Victor Lin Assistant Professor of... Faculty GENERAL STUDIES http://bulletin.columbia.edu/general-studies/faculty/ Victor Lin .Ph.D.,Assistant Professor of... Jazz Studies COLUMBIA COLLEGE http://bulletin.columbia.edu/columbia-college/departments-instruction/jazz-studies/ ...Correa Krin Gabbard David Gibson Brad Jones Victor Lin Ole Mathiesen Tony Moreno Ugonna Okegwa... Music COLUMBIA COLLEGE http://bulletin.columbia.edu/columbia-college/departments-instruction/music/ ...Kahn Arthur Kampela James Kerr Louis Kosma Victor Lin Paul-Martin Maki Andrew Milne Tony... Jazz Studies* GENERAL STUDIES http://bulletin.columbia.edu/general-studies/majors-concentrations/jazz-studies/ ...Correa Krin Gabbard David Gibson Brad Jones Victor Lin Ole Mathiesen Tony Moreno Ugonna Okegwa... Music GENERAL STUDIES http://bulletin.columbia.edu/general-studies/majors-concentrations/music/ ...Kahn Arthur Kampela James Kerr Louis Kosma Victor Lin Paul-Martin Maki Andrew Milne Tony... Jazz Studies OverviewFacultyRequirementsCourses Interdepartmental Committee on Jazz Studies Ann Douglas (English and Comparative Literature) Brent Hayes Edwards (English and Comparative Literature) Aaron Fox (Music) Farah Jasmine Griffin (English and Comparative Literature) George Lewis (Music) Robert G. O’Meally (English and Comparative Literature) Christopher Washburne (Music) Adjunct Lecturers in Jazz Performance Paul Bollenbeck Christine Correa Krin Gabbard David Gibson Brad Jones Victor Lin Ole Mathiesen Tony Moreno Ugonna Okegwa Adriano Santos Don Sickler Leo Traversa Ben Waltzer

SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant

SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant Jump to navigationJump to search Graphic of a globe with a red analog clock This article documents a current event. Information may change rapidly as the event progresses, and initial news reports may be unreliable. The latest updates to this article may not reflect the most current information. Please feel free to improve this article (but note that updates without valid and reliable references will be removed) or discuss changes on the talk page. (November 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Part of a series on the COVID-19 pandemic Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each "ball" is an atom. COVID-19 (disease)SARS-CoV-2 (virus) CasesDeaths Timeline Locations International response Medical response Variants Economic impact and recession Impacts SARS-CoV-2 (Wikimedia colors).svg COVID-19 portal vte The Omicron variant, also known by the PANGO lineage identifier B.1.1.529, GISAID clade identifier GR/484A, and Nextstrain clade identifier 21K,[1] is a variant of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. The first known case was detected in Botswana, dated 9 November 2021.[2] On 26 November 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) designated it as a variant of concern and named it after the Greek letter Omicron.[3][4][5] The variant has an unusually large number of mutations, several of which are novel, and several of which affect the spike protein used for most vaccine targeting at the time of its discovery. This level of variation has led to concerns regarding transmissibility, immune system evasion, and vaccine resistance. As a result, the variant was rapidly designated as being "of concern", and travel restrictions were introduced by several countries to limit or slow its international spread. Contents 1 Classification 1.1 Nomenclature 1.2 Mutations 2 Symptoms 3 Prevention 4 Diagnosis 5 Characteristics 6 Epidemiology 7 Statistics 8 History 8.1 Reported cases 8.2 Market reactions 8.3 International response 9 See also 10 References Classification Nomenclature On 26 November, the WHO's Technical Advisory Group on SARS-CoV-2 Virus Evolution designated PANGO lineage B.1.1.529 a variant of concern and gave it the designation Omicron[3][4][5] (skipping Nu or Xi, the next letters in the Greek alphabet).[6][5] The World Health Organization reserves the Omicron designation for "variants of concern".[7][5] The GISAID project has assigned it the clade identifier GR/484A[1] and the Nextstrain project has assigned it the clade identifier 21K.[1] Mutations The variant has a large number of mutations, of which some are concerning.[8] 32 mutations affect the spike protein, the main antigenic target of antibodies generated by infections and of many vaccines widely administered. Many of those mutations had not been observed in other strains.[9][10] The variant is characterised by 30 amino acid changes, three small deletions and one small insertion in the spike protein compared with the original virus, of which 15 are located in the receptor binding domain (residues 319-541). It also carries a number of changes and deletions in other genomic regions. Of note, the variant has three mutations at the furin cleavage site.[11] The furin cleavage site increases SARS-CoV-2 infectivity.[12] The mutations by genomic region are the following:[13][14] Spike protein: A67V, Δ69-70, T95I, G142D, Δ143-145, Δ211, L212I, ins214EPE, G339D, S371L, S373P, S375F, K417N, N440K, G446S, S477N, T478K, E484A, Q493K[clarification needed], G496S, Q498R, N501Y, Y505H, T547K, D614G, H655Y, N679K, P681H, N764K, D796Y, N856K, Q954H, N969K, L981F ORF1ab nsp3: K38R, V1069I, Δ1265, L1266I, A1892T nsp4: T492I nsp5: P132H nsp6: Δ105-107, A189V nsp12: P323L nsp14: I42V Envelope protein: T9I Membrane protein: D3G, Q19E, A63T Nucleocapsid protein: P13L, Δ31-33, R203K, G204R Symptoms Main article: Symptoms of COVID-19 No unusual symptoms have been associated with the variant, and as with other variants, some individuals are asymptomatic.[15] Prevention See also: COVID-19 § Prevention As with other variants, the WHO recommended that people continue to keep enclosed spaces well ventilated, avoid crowding and close contact, wear well-fitting masks, clean hands frequently, and get vaccinated.[3][16] On 26 November, BioNTech said it will know in two weeks whether the current vaccine is effective against the variant and that an updated vaccine can be shipped in 100 days if necessary. AstraZeneca, Moderna and Johnson & Johnson were also studying the variant's impact on the effectiveness of their vaccines.[17] WHO asked nations to do the following: "Enhance surveillance and sequencing efforts to better understand circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants. Submit complete genome sequences and associated metadata to a publicly available database, such as GISAID. Report initial cases/clusters associated with VOC infection to WHO through the IHR mechanism. Where capacity exists and in coordination with the international community, perform field investigations and laboratory assessments to improve understanding of the potential impacts of the VOC on COVID-19 epidemiology, severity, effectiveness of public health and social measures, diagnostic methods, immune responses, antibody neutralization, or other relevant characteristics."[18] Diagnosis See also: COVID-19 testing Current PCR tests can detect the variant. Some laboratories have indicated that a widely used PCR test does not detect one of the three target genes. Just as with the Alpha variant, this partial detection ("S gene target failure") can serve as a marker for the variant, however.[3] Rapid antigen tests are likely not affected.[15] Characteristics Many of the mutations to the spike protein are present in other variants of concern and are related to increased infectivity and antibody evasion. Computational modeling suggests that the variant may also escape cell-mediated immunity.[10] On 26 November, the ECDC wrote that an evaluation of the neutralizing capacity of convalescent sera and of vaccines is urgently needed to assess possible immune escape, saying these data are expected within two to three weeks.[14] Epidemiology The number of cases in the B.1.1.529 lineage is increasing throughout South Africa, mainly in the South Africa province of Gauteng.[8] Some evidence shows that this variant has an increased risk of reinfection. Studies are underway to evaluate the impact on transmissibility, mortality, and other factors. Evidence regarding the implications of this variant and vaccine efficacy is under investigation.[16][19] In 2020, South African infection rates reached a low on 11 November. Cases peaked in mid-January 2021. Similarly in 2021, cases bottomed out on 11 November, before again rising rapidly, growing four-fold by 25 November.[20] There is still vast uncertainty about the transmissibility with respect to the Delta variant, with a possible 100% increase (2x)[21][22] to 500% increase (6x).[23] Statistics GISAID data as of 27 November, unless otherwise stated:[24] Confirmed cases by country Country Confirmed cases South Africa 83 Botswana 17 Hong Kong 2 United Kingdom 2[25] Germany 2[25] Israel 1 Belgium 1 World (7 countries) Total: 108 History Reported cases On 24 November 2021, the variant was first reported to the WHO from South Africa.[3] The first known specimen was collected on 9 November 2021 from Botswana.[10] It was also detected in South Africa;[26] one case had traveled to Hong Kong,[27][28] and one confirmed case was identified in Israel in a traveler returning from Malawi,[29] along with two who returned from South Africa and one from Madagascar.[30] One confirmed case in Belgium had apparently acquired it in Egypt before 11 November.[31] All four initial cases reported from Botswana occurred among fully vaccinated individuals.[32] All three initial confirmed and suspected cases reported from Israel occurred among fully vaccinated individuals,[29] as did the single suspected case in Germany.[33] On 27 November, two cases were detected in the United Kingdom and another two in Munich, Germany.[25] The Dutch health ministry estimated that 61 of the around 600 passengers on two flights from South Africa that had landed at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol on 26 November (which had taken off just before the Netherlands had banned travel from South Africa) tested positive for COVID-19 of as yet unknown variants. Entry into the Netherlands (and thus getting on the flight) generally required having been vaccinated or PCR-tested, or having recovered. One of the flights originated from Johannesburg, Gauteng. Gauteng is where the Omicron variant appears to be dominant already. The passengers of both flights had been tested and quarantined upon arrival because of the newly imposed restrictions.[34] Market reactions Worry about the potential economic impact of the Omicron variant led to a drop in global markets on 26 November, including the worst drop of the Dow Jones Industrial Average in 2021, led by travel-related stocks. The price of Brent Crude and West Texas Intermediate oil fell 10% and 11.7%, respectively. This reaction was described as "overblown" by one market analyst[who?] due to the lack of firm conclusions by the medical community.[35] Cryptocurrency markets were also routed.[36][37] International response On 26 November WHO advised countries not to impose new restrictions on travel, instead recommending a "risk-based and scientific" approach to travel measures.[38] On the same day the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) reported modeling indicating that strict travel restrictions would delay the variant's impact on European countries by two weeks, possibly allowing countries to prepare for it.[14] Also on the same day, several countries announced travel bans from southern Africa in response to the identification of the variant, including Japan, Canada, the European Union, Israel, Australia, the United Kingdom, Singapore, the United States, and Malaysia.[39][40][41][42] The Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency recommended flight restrictions regarding the new variant.[43] The state of New York declared a state of emergency ahead of a potential Omicron spike, though no cases had yet been detected in the state or the rest of the United States.[44] In response, South African Minister of Health Joe Phaahla defended his country's handling of the pandemic and said that travel bans went against the "norms and standards" of the World Health Organization.[45] See also Variants of SARS-CoV-2 SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant COVID-19 pandemic in Africa COVID-19 vaccination in Africa COVID-19 vaccination in Botswana COVID-19 vaccination in South Africa References "Tracking SARS-CoV-2 variants". www.who.int. Retrieved 27 November 2021. "US to Restrict Flights Over New Heavily Mutated Omicron COVID-19 Variant - November 26, 2021". Daily News Brief. 26 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. "Classification of Omicron (B.1.1.529): SARS-CoV-2 Variant of Concern". World Health Organization. 26 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Parekh, Marcus; Platt, Poppie; Team, Global Health Security; Barnes, Joe (26 November 2021). "Coronavirus latest news: EU suspends all flights to southern Africa over omicron Covid variant fears". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Meyer, David (16 November 2021). "What's Omicron? Here's what we know and don't know about the new COVID variant that's roiling markets and air travel". Fortune. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Parekh, Marcus; Platt, Poppie; Team, Global Health Security; Barnes, Joe (26 November 2021). "Coronavirus latest news: EU suspends all flights to southern Africa over omicron Covid variant fears". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 26 November 2021. "Countries are scrambling to stop a new covid variant". The Economist. 26 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Hurst, Luke (26 November 2021). "What we know so far about the B.1.1.529 'Omicron' COVID variant causing concern". Euronews. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Cookson, Clive; Barnes, Oliver (26 November 2021). "What we know about Omicron variant that has sparked global alarm". Financial Times. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Callaway, Ewen (25 November 2021). "Heavily mutated coronavirus variant puts scientists on alert". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-03552-w. Zimmer, Carl (26 November 2021). "New Virus Variant Stokes Concern but Vaccines Still Likely to Work". New York Times. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Zhang, Liping; Mann, Matthew; Zulfeqhar, Syed; Reynolds, Hayley; Tian, E; Samara, Nadine; Zeldin, Darryl; Tabak, Lawrence (23 November 2021). "Furin cleavage of the SARS-CoV-2 spike is modulated by O-glycosylation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America. 118 (47): e2109905118. doi:10.1073/pnas.2109905118. PMID 34732583. S2CID 242937417. SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern and variants under investigation in England, technical briefing 29 (PDF) (Briefing). Public Health England. 26 November 2021. GOV-10481. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021. "Implications of the emergence and spread of the SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1. 529 variant of concern (Omicron) for the EU/EEA" (PDF). ecdc.europa.eu. Retrieved 26 November 2021. "Frequently asked questions for the B.1.1.529 mutated SARS-CoV-2 lineage in South Africa". NICD. National Institute for Communicable Diseases. 26 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. Nebehay, Stephanie; Winning, Alexander (26 November 2021). "WHO names new COVID variant omicron, cautions against travel measures". Reuters. Retrieved 26 November 2021. "BioNTech says it could tweak Covid vaccine in 100 days if needed". The Guardian. 26 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. Classification of Omicron (B.1.1.529): SARS-CoV-2 Variant of Concern Sample, Ian (24 November 2021). "Scientists warn of new Covid variant with high number of mutations". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 November 2021. "COVID-19 Data Explorer". Our World in Data. Retrieved 26 November 2021. "Omicron variant spreads to Europe as UK announces countermeasures". the Guardian. 26 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. Health Department briefs media about a new so-called super-variant, retrieved 27 November 2021 "New COVID variant possibly 500 percent more infectious than Delta". Newsweek. 26 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. "Tracking of Variants". GISAID. Updated frequently. "Omicron coronavirus variant detected in UK and Germany, concern triggers travel curbs". Reuters. 27 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. "Lineage: Mutation Tracker: s:S371L Mutation Report". outbreak.info. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Covid: New heavily mutated variant B.1.1.529 in South Africa raises concern, 25 November 2021, BBC News, accessed 25 November 2021 Tracking SARS-CoV-2 variants (Tables: Currently designated Variants Under Monitoring -describes 529 variant as present in 'Multiple countries'- and 'Formerly monitored variants'- B.1.523 & B.1.619 Reclassified Nov 2021). www.who.int, accessed 25 November 2021 @BNODesk (26 November 2021). "Statement from Israel's health ministry reporting 1 confirmed case of new coronavirus variant B.1.1.529" (Tweet). Retrieved 26 November 2021 – via Twitter. 14:30 4 מאומתים לווריאנט החדש התגלו בארץ, רה"מ יקיים מסיבת עיתונאים translated: "...Verified for the new strain 4 verified for the new variant were discovered in the country...", m.ynet.co.il, accessed 26 November 2021 Reuters (26 November 2021). "Belgium detects first case of new COVID-19 variant in Europe". Reuters. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Four cases of the new COVID-19 variant recorded in Botswana, 25 November 2021, Mmegi Online, accessed 26 November 2021 Kerstin Kesselgruber (27 November 2021). "Flughafen Frankfurt: Person mit Omikron-Verdacht war vollständig geimpft" [Frankfurt airport: Person suspected to be infected with omicron variant was fully vaccinanted]. Frankfurter Rundschau (in German). Archived from the original on 27 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. "61 travellers from South Africa in Netherlands positive for COVID-19 -authorities". Reuters. Amsterdam. 27 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. Gregg, Aaron (26 November 2021). "Dow plunges more than 900 points as new coronavirus variant sends global markets reeling". Washington Post. Retrieved 26 November 2021. "Bitcoin and other crypto plunge as fear of new COVID variant routs markets". Fortune. https://www.euronews.com/next/2021/11/26/bitcoin-price-drops-8-amid-fears-of-covid-b-1-1-529-variant-discovered-in-south-africa-her "WHO cautions against imposing travel restrictions due to new variant". Reuters. Geneva. 26 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Yong, Clement (26 November 2021). "Singapore bans travellers from 7 African countries; no cases of new Covid-19 variant here". The Straits Times. Singapore. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Linskey, Annie (26 November 2021). "U.S. to restrict travel from South Africa and other countries as it assesses risks of new omicron variant". Washington Post. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Walsh, Marieke; Stone, Laura (26 November 2021). "COVID-19 variant of concern Omicron causes Canada to impose restrictions on travel from southern parts of Africa". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Daim, Nuradzimmah; Harun, Hana (26 November 2021). "Temporary entry ban on foreign travellers following discovery of heavily mutated Covid-19 variant". New Straits Times. Archived from the original on 26 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. Anvisa recomenda restrições de voo diante de nova variante de covid-19 26 November 2021 agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br, accessed 27 November 2021 Kennedy, Mark; Price, R. Darren. "'It's Coming': NY Declares State of Emergency Ahead of Potential Omicron Spike". NBC New York. Retrieved 27 November 2021. Winning, Alexander; Cocks, Tim (26 November 2021). "South Africa says travel bans over new variant unjustified". Reuters. Archived from the original on 26

H. pylori finds its home

H. pylori finds its home Oct 12, 2016 iBiology 135K subscribers https://www.ibiology.org/microbiology... Most microorganisms cannot survive in the hostile environment of the stomach. But, what happens when bacteria survives the gastric lumen and are able to call the stomach its home? Dr. Julie Huang tells us the story of H. pylori, eccentric bacteria that are able to colonize human stomach. These bacteria are the leading cause of stomach ulcers in humans and are associated with stomach cancer. Huang discovered TlpB, a chemoreceptor in H. pylori that enables bacteria to detect suitable environments and thereafter “swim” toward their home, the epithelial cells. She showed that TlpB detects the presence of urea, allowing H. pylori to find a more neutral environment where it can survive. This demonstrates that bacteria not only can sense potentially harmful cues, like low pH, but can also react to favorable factors, like urea, when finding their new home. This innovative understanding on how H. pylori find their niche opens new routes to develop novel approaches to prevent stomach ulcers and cancer. Speaker Biography: Dr. Julie Huang completed her Bachelor degree at the California Institute of Technology. Given her scientific merits, she was granted a Fulbright scholarship in 2009 to work at the Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology in Germany. After this experience, Huang joined the Microbiology and Immunology doctorate program at Stanford University, where she started to work with Dr. Manuel Amieva. At Stanford, she studied how the pathogen H. pylori survive in the stomach. Her outreach interests led her to be involved in different mentoring initiatives, including co-founding the Stanford First Gen/Low-Income (FLI) Undergraduate Mentoring Program.

Chiropractic

Chiropractic Alternative medicine Chiropractor performing adjustment A chiropractor performing a vertebral adjustment Claims Vertebral subluxation, spinal adjustment, Innate Intelligence Risks Vertebral artery dissection (stroke), compression fracture, death Related fields Osteopathy, vitalism Year proposed 1895 in Davenport, Iowa, U.S. Original proponents D. D. Palmer Subsequent proponents B. J. Palmer MeSH D002684 This article is part of a series on Alternative medicine Outline-body-aura.svg General information Fringe medicine and science Conspiracy theories (list) Classifications Traditional medicine Diagnoses vte Chiropractic is an alternative health profession[1] concerned with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, especially of the spine.[2] It has esoteric origins[3] and is based on several pseudoscientific ideas.[4] Many chiropractors, especially those in the field's early history, have proposed that mechanical disorders of the joints, especially of the spine, affect general health,[2] and that regular manipulation of the spine (spinal adjustment) improves general health. The main chiropractic treatment technique involves manual therapy, especially manipulation of the spine, other joints, and soft tissues, but may also include exercises and health and lifestyle counseling.[5] A chiropractor may have a Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.) degree and be referred to as "doctor" but is not a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.)[6][7] While many chiropractors view themselves as primary care providers,[8][9] chiropractic clinical training does not meet the requirements to be such a provider.[2] Systematic reviews of controlled clinical studies of treatments used by chiropractors have found no evidence that chiropractic manipulation is effective, with the possible exception of treatment for back pain.[8] A 2011 critical evaluation of 45 systematic reviews found that spinal manipulation was ineffective at treating any condition.[10] Spinal manipulation may be cost-effective for sub-acute or chronic low back pain, but the results for acute low back pain were insufficient.[11] No compelling evidence exists to indicate that maintenance chiropractic care adequately prevents symptoms or diseases.[12] There is not sufficient data to establish the safety of chiropractic manipulations.[13] It is frequently associated with mild to moderate adverse effects, with serious or fatal complications in rare cases.[14] There is controversy regarding the degree of risk of vertebral artery dissection, which can lead to stroke and death, from cervical manipulation.[15] Several deaths have been associated with this technique[14] and it has been suggested that the relationship is causative,[16][17] a claim which is disputed by many chiropractors.[17] Chiropractic is well established in the United States, Canada, and Australia.[18] It overlaps with other manual-therapy professions such as osteopathy and physical therapy.[19] Most who seek chiropractic care do so for low back pain.[20] Back and neck pain are considered the specialties of chiropractic, but many chiropractors treat ailments other than musculoskeletal issues.[8] Chiropractic has two main groups: "straights", now the minority, emphasize vitalism, "Innate Intelligence", and consider vertebral subluxations to be the cause of all disease; and "mixers", the majority, are more open to mainstream views and conventional medical techniques, such as exercise, massage, and ice therapy.[21] D. D. Palmer founded chiropractic in the 1890s,[22] after saying he received it from "the other world";[23] Palmer maintained that the tenets of chiropractic were passed along to him by a doctor who had died 50 years previously.[24] His son B. J. Palmer helped to expand chiropractic in the early 20th century.[22] Throughout its history, chiropractic has been controversial.[25][26] Its foundation is at odds with evidence-based medicine, and has been sustained by pseudoscientific ideas such as vertebral subluxation and innate intelligence.[27] Despite the overwhelming evidence that vaccination is an effective public health intervention, among chiropractors there are significant disagreements over the subject,[28] which has led to negative impacts on both public vaccination and mainstream acceptance of chiropractic.[29] The American Medical Association called chiropractic an "unscientific cult" in 1966[30] and boycotted it until losing an antitrust case in 1987.[9] Chiropractic has had a strong political base and sustained demand for services. In the last decades of the twentieth century, it gained more legitimacy and greater acceptance among conventional physicians and health plans in the United States.[9] During the COVID-19 pandemic chiropractic professional associations advised chiropractors to adhere to CDC, WHO, and local health department guidance.[31][32] Despite these recommendations, a small but vocal and influential number of chiropractors spread anti-vaccine disinformation.[33] Contents 1 Conceptual basis 1.1 Philosophy 1.2 Straights and mixers 1.3 Vertebral subluxation 1.4 Pseudoscience versus spinal manipulation therapy 2 Scope of practice 3 Treatments 3.1 Practice guidelines 3.2 Effectiveness 3.3 Safety 3.4 Risk-benefit 3.5 Cost-effectiveness 4 Education, licensing, and regulation 4.1 Ethics 5 Reception 5.1 Australia 5.2 United Kingdom 5.3 United States and Canada 6 History 7 Public health 8 Controversy 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Conceptual basis Philosophy Chiropractic is generally categorized as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM),[1] which focuses on manipulation of the musculoskeletal system, especially the spine.[2] Its founder, D. D. Palmer, called it "a science of healing without drugs".[8] Chiropractic's origins lie in the folk medicine of bonesetting,[8] and as it evolved it incorporated vitalism, spiritual inspiration and rationalism.[34] Its early philosophy was based on deduction from irrefutable doctrine, which helped distinguish chiropractic from medicine, provided it with legal and political defenses against claims of practicing medicine without a license, and allowed chiropractors to establish themselves as an autonomous profession.[34] This "straight" philosophy, taught to generations of chiropractors, rejects the inferential reasoning of the scientific method,[34] and relies on deductions from vitalistic first principles rather than on the materialism of science.[35] However, most practitioners tend to incorporate scientific research into chiropractic,[34] and most practitioners are "mixers" who attempt to combine the materialistic reductionism of science with the metaphysics of their predecessors and with the holistic paradigm of wellness.[35] A 2008 commentary proposed that chiropractic actively divorce itself from the straight philosophy as part of a campaign to eliminate untestable dogma and engage in critical thinking and evidence-based research.[36] Two chiropractic belief system constructs The testable principle The untestable metaphor Chiropractic adjustment ↓ Restoration of structural integrity ↓ Improvement of health status Universal intelligence ↓ Innate intelligence ↓ Body physiology Materialistic: Vitalistic: Operational definitions possible Lends itself to scientific inquiry Origin of holism in chiropractic Cannot be proven or disproven Taken from Mootz & Phillips 1997[35] Although a wide diversity of ideas exist among chiropractors,[34] they share the belief that the spine and health are related in a fundamental way, and that this relationship is mediated through the nervous system.[37] Some chiropractors claim spinal manipulation can have an effect on a variety of ailments such as irritable bowel syndrome and asthma.[38] Chiropractic philosophy includes the following perspectives:[35] Holism assumes that health is affected by everything in an individual's environment; some sources also include a spiritual or existential dimension.[39] In contrast, reductionism in chiropractic reduces causes and cures of health problems to a single factor, vertebral subluxation.[36] Homeostasis emphasizes the body's inherent self-healing abilities. Chiropractic's early notion of innate intelligence can be thought of as a metaphor for homeostasis.[34] A large number of chiropractors fear that if they do not separate themselves from the traditional vitalistic concept of innate intelligence, chiropractic will continue to be seen as a fringe profession.[21] A variant of chiropractic called naprapathy originated in Chicago in the early twentieth century.[40][41] It holds that manual manipulation of soft tissue can reduce "interference" in the body and thus improve health.[41] Straights and mixers Range of belief perspectives in chiropractic Perspective attribute Potential belief endpoints Scope of practice: narrow ("straight") ← → broad ("mixer") Diagnostic approach: intuitive ← → analytical Philosophic orientation: vitalistic ← → materialistic Scientific orientation: descriptive ← → experimental Process orientation: implicit ← → explicit Practice attitude: doctor/model-centered ← → patient/situation-centered Professional integration: separate and distinct ← → integrated into mainstream Taken from Mootz & Phillips 1997[35] Straight chiropractors adhere to the philosophical principles set forth by D. D. and B. J. Palmer, and retain metaphysical definitions and vitalistic qualities.[42] Straight chiropractors believe that vertebral subluxation leads to interference with an "innate intelligence" exerted via the human nervous system and is a primary underlying risk factor for many diseases.[42] Straights view the medical diagnosis of patient complaints, which they consider to be the "secondary effects" of subluxations, to be unnecessary for chiropractic treatment.[42] Thus, straight chiropractors are concerned primarily with the detection and correction of vertebral subluxation via adjustment and do not "mix" other types of therapies into their practice style.[42] Their philosophy and explanations are metaphysical in nature and they prefer to use traditional chiropractic lexicon terminology such as "perform spinal analysis", "detect subluxation", "correct with adjustment".[21] They prefer to remain separate and distinct from mainstream health care.[21] Although considered the minority group, "they have been able to transform their status as purists and heirs of the lineage into influence dramatically out of proportion to their numbers."[21] Mixer chiropractors "mix" diagnostic and treatment approaches from chiropractic, medical or osteopathic viewpoints and make up the majority of chiropractors.[21] Unlike straight chiropractors, mixers believe subluxation is one of many causes of disease, and hence they tend to be open to mainstream medicine.[21] Many of them incorporate mainstream medical diagnostics and employ conventional treatments including techniques of physical therapy such as exercise, stretching, massage, ice packs, electrical muscle stimulation, therapeutic ultrasound, and moist heat.[21] Some mixers also use techniques from alternative medicine, including nutritional supplements, acupuncture, homeopathy, herbal remedies, and biofeedback.[21] Although mixers are the majority group, many of them retain belief in vertebral subluxation as shown in a 2003 survey of 1,100 North American chiropractors, which found that 88 percent wanted to retain the term "vertebral subluxation complex", and that when asked to estimate the percent of disorders of internal organs that subluxation significantly contributes to, the mean response was 62 percent.[43] A 2008 survey of 6,000 American chiropractors demonstrated that most chiropractors seem to believe that a subluxation-based clinical approach may be of limited utility for addressing visceral disorders, and greatly favored non-subluxation-based clinical approaches for such conditions.[44] The same survey showed that most chiropractors generally believed that the majority of their clinical approach for addressing musculoskeletal/biomechanical disorders such as back pain was based on subluxation.[44] Chiropractors often offer conventional therapies such as physical therapy and lifestyle counseling, and it may for the lay person be difficult to distinguish the unscientific from the scientific.[45] Vertebral subluxation Main article: Vertebral subluxation Not to be confused with subluxation, the medical condition. In science-based medicine, the term "subluxation" refers to an incomplete or partial dislocation of a joint, from the Latin luxare for 'dislocate'.[46][47] While medical doctors use the term exclusively to refer to physical dislocations, Chiropractic founder D. D. Palmer imbued the word subluxation with a metaphysical and philosophical meaning drawn from pseudoscientific traditions such as Vitalism.[48] Palmer claimed that vertebral subluxations, interfered with the body's function and its inborn ability to heal itself.[49] D. D. Palmer repudiated his earlier theory that vertebral subluxations caused pinched nerves in the intervertebral spaces in favor of subluxations causing altered nerve vibration, either too tense or too slack, affecting the tone (health) of the end organ.[48]He qualified this by noting that knowledge of innate intelligence was not essential to the competent practice of chiropractic.[48] This concept was later expanded upon by his son, B. J. Palmer, and was instrumental in providing the legal basis of differentiating chiropractic from conventional medicine. In 1910, D. D. Palmer theorized that the nervous system controlled health: "Physiologists divide nerve-fibers, which form the nerves, into two classes, afferent and efferent. Impressions are made on the peripheral afferent fiber-endings; these create sensations that are transmitted to the center of the nervous system. Efferent nerve-fibers carry impulses out from the center to their endings. Most of these go to muscles and are therefore called motor impulses; some are secretory and enter glands; a portion are inhibitory, their function being to restrain secretion. Thus, nerves carry impulses outward and sensations inward. The activity of these nerves, or rather their fibers, may become excited or allayed by impingement, the result being a modification of functionality – too much or not enough action – which is disease."[50] Chiropractors use x-ray radiography to examine the bone structure of a patient. Vertebral subluxation, a core concept of traditional chiropractic, remains unsubstantiated and largely untested, and a debate about whether to keep it in the chiropractic paradigm has been ongoing for decades.[51] In general, critics of traditional subluxation-based chiropractic (including chiropractors) are skeptical of its clinical value, dogmatic beliefs and metaphysical approach. While straight chiropractic still retains the traditional vitalistic construct espoused by the founders, evidence-based chiropractic suggests that a mechanistic view will allow chiropractic care to become integrated into the wider health care community.[51] This is still a continuing source of debate within the chiropractic profession as well, with some schools of chiropractic still teaching the traditional/straight subluxation-based chiropractic, while others have moved towards an evidence-based chiropractic that rejects metaphysical foundings and limits itself to primarily neuromusculoskeletal conditions.[52][53] In 2005, the chiropractic subluxation was defined by the World Health Organization as "a lesion or dysfunction in a joint or motion segment in which alignment, movement integrity and/or physiological function are altered, although contact between joint surfaces remains intact.[54] It is essentially a functional entity, which may influence biomechanical and neural integrity."[54] This differs from the medical definition of subluxation as a significant structural displacement, which can be seen with static imaging techniques such as X-rays.[54] This exposes patients to harmful ionizing radiation for no evidentially supported reason.[55][56] The 2008 book Trick or Treatment states "X-rays can reveal neither the subluxations nor the innate intelligence associated with chiropractic philosophy, because they do not exist."[57] Attorney David Chapman-Smith, Secretary-General of the World Federation of Chiropractic, has stated that "Medical critics have asked how there can be a subluxation if it cannot be seen on X-ray. The answer is that the chiropractic subluxation is essentially a functional entity, not structural, and is therefore no more visible on static X-ray than a limp or headache or any other functional problem."[58] The General Chiropractic Council, the statutory regulatory body for chiropractors in the United Kingdom, states that the chiropractic vertebral subluxation complex "is not supported by any clinical research evidence that would allow claims to be made that it is the cause of disease."[59] As of 2014, the National Board of Chiropractic Examiners states "The specific focus of chiropractic practice is known as the chiropractic subluxation or joint dysfunction. A subluxation is a health concern that manifests in the skeletal joints, and, through complex anatomical and physiological relationships, affects the nervous system and may lead to reduced function, disability or illness."[60][27] Pseudoscience versus spinal manipulation therapy While some chiropractors limit their practice to short-term treatment of musculoskeletal conditions, many falsely claim to be able treat a myriad of other conditions.[61][62] Some dissuade patients from seeking medical care, others have pretended to be qualified to act as a family doctor.[61] Quackwatch, an alternative medicine watchdog, cautions against seeing chiropractors who:[61][63] Treat young children Discourage immunization Pretend to be a family doctor Take full spine X-rays Promote unproven dietary supplements Are antagonistic to scientific medicine Claim to treat non-musculoskeletal problems Writing for the Skeptical Inquirer, one physician cautioned against seeing even chiropractors who solely claim to treat musculoskeletal conditions: "I think Spinal Manipulation Therapy (SMT) is a reasonable option for patients to try ... But I could not in good conscience refer a patient to a chiropractor... When chiropractic is effective, what is effective is not 'chiropractic': it is SMT. SMT is also offered by physical therapists, DOs, and others. These are science-based providers ... If I thought a patient might benefit from manipulation, I would rather refer him or her to a science-based provider.[61] Scope of practice A treatment table at a chiropractic office Chiropractors emphasize the conservative management of the neuromusculoskeletal system without the use of medicines or surgery,[54] with special emphasis on the spine.[2] Back and neck pain are the specialties of chiropractic but many chiropractors treat ailments other than musculoskeletal issues.[8] There is a range of opinions among chiropractors: some believed that treatment should be confined to the spine, or back and neck pain; others disagreed.[64] For example, while one 2009 survey of American chiropractors had found that 73% classified themselves as "back pain/musculoskeletal specialists", the label "back and neck pain specialists" was regarded by 47% of them as a least desirable description in a 2005 international survey.[64] Chiropractic combines aspects from mainstream and alternative medicine, and there is no agreement about how to define the profession: although chiropractors have many attributes of primary care providers, chiropractic has more attributes of a medical specialty like dentistry or podiatry.[65] It has been proposed that chiropractors specialize in nonsurgical spine care, instead of attempting to also treat other problems,[36][65] but the more expansive view of chiropractic is still widespread.[66] Mainstream health care and governmental organizations such as the World Health Organization consider chiropractic to be complementary and alternative medicine (CAM);[1] and a 2008 study reported that 31% of surveyed chiropractors categorized chiropractic as CAM, 27% as integrated medicine, and 12% as mainstream medicine.[67] Many chiropractors believe they are primary care providers,[8][9] including US[68] and UK chiropractors,[69] but the length, breadth, and depth of chiropractic clinical training do not support the requirements to be considered primary care providers,[2] so their role on primary care is limited and disputed.[2][9] Chiropractic overlaps with several other forms of manual therapy, including massage therapy, osteopathy, physical therapy, and sports medicine.[19][70] Chiropractic is autonomous from and competitive with mainstream medicine,[71] and osteopathy outside the US remains primarily a manual medical system;[72] physical therapists work alongside and cooperate with mainstream medicine, and osteopathic medicine in the U.S. has merged with the medical profession.[71] Practitioners may distinguish these competing approaches through claims that, compared to other therapists, chiropractors heavily emphasize spinal manipulation, tend to use firmer manipulative techniques, and promote maintenance care; that osteopaths use a wider variety of treatment procedures; and that physical therapists emphasize machinery and exercise.[19] Chiropractic diagnosis may involve a range of methods including skeletal imaging, observational and tactile assessments, and orthopedic and neurological evaluation.[54] A chiropractor may also refer a patient to an appropriate specialist, or co-manage with another health care provider.[65] Common patient management involves spinal manipulation (SM) and other manual therapies to the joints and soft tissues, rehabilitative exercises, health promotion, electrical modalities, complementary procedures, and lifestyle advice.[5] A chiropractic adjustment of a horse Chiropractors are not normally licensed to write medical prescriptions or perform major surgery in the United States,[73] (although New Mexico has become the first US state to allow "advanced practice" trained chiropractors to prescribe certain medications.[74][75]). In the US, their scope of practice varies by state, based on inconsistent views of chiropractic care: some states, such as Iowa, broadly allow treatment of "human ailments"; some, such as Delaware, use vague concepts such as "transition of nerve energy" to define scope of practice; others, such as New Jersey, specify a severely narrowed scope.[76] US states also differ over whether chiropractors may conduct laboratory tests or diagnostic procedures, dispense dietary supplements, or use other therapies such as homeopathy and acupuncture; in Oregon they can become certified to perform minor surgery and to deliver children via natural childbirth.[73] A 2003 survey of North American chiropractors found that a slight majority favored allowing them to write prescriptions for over-the-counter drugs.[43] A 2010 survey found that 72% of Swiss chiropractors considered their ability to prescribe nonprescription medication as an advantage for chiropractic treatment.[77] A related field, veterinary chiropractic, applies manual therapies to animals and is recognized in many US states,[78] but is not recognized by the American Chiropractic Association as being chiropractic.[79] It remains controversial within certain segments of the veterinary and chiropractic profession.[80] No single profession "owns" spinal manipulation and there is little consensus as to which profession should administer SM, raising concerns by chiropractors that other medical physicians could "steal" SM procedures from chiropractors.[81] A focus on evidence-based SM research has also raised concerns that the resulting practice guidelines could limit the scope of chiropractic practice to treating backs and necks.[81] Two US states (Washington and Arkansas) prohibit physical therapists from performing SM,[82] some states allow them to do it only if they have completed advanced training in SM, and some states allow only chiropractors to perform SM, or only chiropractors and physicians. Bills to further prohibit non-chiropractors from performing SM are regularly introduced into state legislatures and are opposed by physical therapist organizations.[83] Treatments Main articles: Chiropractic treatment techniques and Spinal adjustment A chiropractor performs an adjustment on a patient. Spinal manipulation, which chiropractors call "spinal adjustment" or "chiropractic adjustment", is the most common treatment used in chiropractic care.[84] Spinal manipulation is a passive manual maneuver during which a three-joint complex is taken past the normal range of movement, but not so far as to dislocate or damage the joint.[85] Its defining factor is a dynamic thrust, which is a sudden force that causes an audible release and attempts to increase a joint's range of motion.[85] High-velocity, low-amplitude spinal manipulation (HVLA-SM) thrusts have physiological effects that signal neural discharge from paraspinal muscle tissues, depending on duration and amplitude of the thrust are factors of the degree in paraspinal muscle spindles activation.[86] Clinical skill in employing HVLA-SM thrusts depends on the ability of the practitioner to handle the duration and magnitude of the load.[86] More generally, spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) describes techniques where the hands are used to manipulate, massage, mobilize, adjust, stimulate, apply traction to, or otherwise influence the spine and related tissues.[85] There are several schools of chiropractic adjustive techniques, although most chiropractors mix techniques from several schools. The following adjustive procedures were received by more than 10% of patients of licensed US chiropractors in a 2003 survey:[84] Diversified technique (full-spine manipulation, employing various techniques), extremity adjusting, Activator technique (which uses a spring-loaded tool to deliver precise adjustments to the spine), Thompson Technique (which relies on a drop table and detailed procedural protocols), Gonstead (which emphasizes evaluating the spine along with specific adjustment that avoids rotational vectors), Cox/flexion-distraction (a gentle, low-force adjusting procedure which mixes chiropractic with osteopathic principles and utilizes specialized adjusting tables with movable parts), adjustive instrument, Sacro-Occipital Technique (which models the spine as a torsion bar), Nimmo Receptor-Tonus Technique, applied kinesiology (which emphasises "muscle testing" as a diagnostic tool), and cranial.[87] Chiropractic biophysics technique uses inverse functions of rotations during spinal manipulation.[88] Koren Specific Technique (KST) may use their hands, or they may use an electric device known as an "ArthroStim" for assessment and spinal manipulations.[89] Insurers in the US and UK that cover other chiropractic techniques exclude KST from coverage because they consider it to be "experimental and investigational".[89][90][91][92] Medicine-assisted manipulation, such as manipulation under anesthesia, involves sedation or local anesthetic and is done by a team that includes an anesthesiologist; a 2008 systematic review did not find enough evidence to make recommendations about its use for chronic low back pain.[93] Lumbar, cervical and thoracic chiropractic spinal manipulation Many other procedures are used by chiropractors for treating the spine, other joints and tissues, and general health issues. The following procedures were received by more than one-third of patients of licensed US chiropractors in a 2003 survey: Diversified technique (full-spine manipulation; mentioned in previous paragraph), physical fitness/exercise promotion, corrective or therapeutic exercise, ergonomic/postural advice, self-care strategies, activities of daily living, changing risky/unhealthy behaviors, nutritional/dietary recommendations, relaxation/stress reduction recommendations, ice pack/cryotherapy, extremity adjusting (also mentioned in previous paragraph), trigger point therapy, and disease prevention/early screening advice.[84] A 2010 study describing Belgian chiropractors and their patients found chiropractors in Belgium mostly focus on neuromusculoskeletal complaints in adult patients, with emphasis on the spine.[94] The diversified technique is the most often applied technique at 93%, followed by the Activator mechanical-assisted technique at 41%.[94] A 2009 study assessing chiropractic students giving or receiving spinal manipulations while attending a United States chiropractic college found Diversified, Gonstead, and upper cervical manipulations are frequently used methods.[95] Practice guidelines Reviews of research studies within the chiropractic community have been used to generate practice guidelines outlining standards that specify which chiropractic treatments are legitimate (i.e. supported by evidence) and conceivably reimbursable under managed care health payment systems.[81] Evidence-based guidelines are supported by one end of an ideological continuum among chiropractors; the other end employs antiscientific reasoning and makes unsubstantiated claims.[2][27][51][96][97] Chiropractic remains at a crossroads, and that in order to progress it would need to embrace science; the promotion by some for it to be a cure-all was both "misguided and irrational".[98] A 2007 survey of Alberta chiropractors found that they do not consistently apply research in practice, which may have resulted from a lack of research education and skills.[99] Specific guidelines concerning the treatment of nonspecific (i.e., unknown cause) low back pain are inconsistent between countries.[100] Effectiveness Numerous controlled clinical studies of treatments used by chiropractors have been conducted, with varied results.[8] There is no conclusive evidence that chiropractic manipulative treatment is effective for the treatment of any medical condition, except perhaps for certain kinds of back pain.[8][10] Generally, the research carried out into the effectiveness of chiropractic has been of poor quality.[101][102] Research published by chiropractors is distinctly biased: reviews of SM for back pain tended to find positive conclusions when authored by chiropractors, while reviews by mainstream authors did not.[8] There is a wide range of ways to measure treatment outcomes.[103] Chiropractic care benefits from the placebo response,[104] but it is difficult to construct a trustworthy placebo for clinical trials of spinal manipulative therapy (SMT).[105] The efficacy of maintenance care in chiropractic is unknown.[106] Available evidence covers the following conditions: Low back pain. A 2013 Cochrane review found very low to moderate evidence that SMT was no more effective than inert interventions, sham SMT or as an adjunct therapy for acute low back pain.[107] The same review found that SMT appears to be no better than other recommended therapies.[107] A 2012 overview of systematic reviews found that collectively, SM failed to show it is an effective intervention for pain.[108] A 2011 Cochrane review found strong evidence that suggests there is no clinically meaningful difference between SMT and other treatments for reducing pain and improving function for chronic low back pain.[109] A 2010 Cochrane review found no current evidence to support or refute a clinically significant difference between the effects of combined chiropractic interventions and other interventions for chronic or mixed duration low back pain.[110] A 2010 systematic review found that most studies suggest SMT achieves equivalent or superior improvement in pain and function when compared with other commonly used interventions for short, intermediate, and long-term follow-up.[111] Radiculopathy. A 2013 systematic review and meta-analysis found a statistically significant improvement in overall recovery from sciatica following SM, when compared to usual care, and suggested that SM may be considered.[112] There is moderate quality evidence to support the use of SM for the treatment of acute lumbar radiculopathy[113] and acute lumbar disc herniation with associated radiculopathy.[114] There is low or very low evidence supporting SM for chronic lumbar spine-related extremity symptoms and cervical spine-related extremity symptoms of any duration and no evidence exists for the treatment of thoracic radiculopathy.[113] Whiplash and other neck pain. There is no consensus on the effectiveness of manual therapies for neck pain.[115] A 2013 systematic review found that the data suggests that there are minimal short- and long-term treatment differences when comparing manipulation or mobilization of the cervical spine to physical therapy or exercise for neck pain improvement.[116] A 2013 systematic review found that although there is insufficient evidence that thoracic SM is more effective than other treatments, it is a suitable intervention to treat some patients with non-specific neck pain.[117] A 2011 systematic review found that thoracic SM may offer short-term improvement for the treatment of acute or subacute mechanical neck pain; although the body of literature is still weak.[118] A 2010 Cochrane review found low quality evidence that suggests cervical manipulation may offer better short-term pain relief than a control for neck pain, and moderate evidence that cervical manipulation and mobilization produced similar effects on pain, function and patient satisfaction.[119] A 2010 systematic review found low level evidence that suggests chiropractic care improves cervical range of motion and pain in the management of whiplash.[120] Headache. There is conflicting evidence surrounding the use of chiropractic SMT for the treatment and prevention of migraine headaches.[121] [122] A 2006 review found no rigorous evidence supporting SM or other manual therapies for tension headache.[123] A 2005 review found that the evidence was weak for effectiveness of chiropractic manipulation for tension headache, and that it was probably more effective for tension headache than for migraine.[124] Extremity conditions. A 2011 systematic review and meta-analysis concluded that the addition of manual mobilizations to an exercise program for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis resulted in better pain relief than a supervised exercise program alone and suggested that manual therapists consider adding manual mobilization to optimize supervised active exercise programs.[125] There is silver level evidence that manual therapy is more effective than exercise for the treatment of hip osteoarthritis, however this evidence could be considered to be inconclusive.[126] There is a small amount of research into the efficacy of chiropractic treatment for upper limbs,[127] limited to low level evidence supporting chiropractic management of shoulder pain[128] and limited or fair evidence supporting chiropractic management of leg conditions.[129] Other. A 2012 systematic review found insufficient low bias evidence to support the use of spinal manipulation as a therapy for the treatment of hypertension.[130] A 2011 systematic review found moderate evidence to support the use of manual therapy for cervicogenic dizziness.[131] There is very weak evidence for chiropractic care for adult scoliosis (curved or rotated spine)[132] and no scientific data for idiopathic adolescent scoliosis.[133] A 2007 systematic review found that few studies of chiropractic care for nonmusculoskeletal conditions are available, and they are typically not of high quality; it also found that the entire clinical encounter of chiropractic care (as opposed to just SM) provides benefit to patients with cervicogenic dizziness, and that the evidence from reviews is negative, or too weak to draw conclusions, for a wide variety of other nonmusculoskeletal conditions, including ADHD/learning disabilities, dizziness, high blood pressure, and vision conditions.[134] Other reviews have found no evidence of significant benefit for asthma,[135][136] baby colic,[137][138] bedwetting,[139] carpal tunnel syndrome,[140] fibromyalgia,[141] gastrointestinal disorders,[142] kinetic imbalance due to suboccipital strain (KISS) in infants,[137][143] menstrual cramps,[144] insomnia,[145] postmenopausal symptoms,[145] or pelvic and back pain during pregnancy.[146] As there is no evidence of effectiveness or safety for cervical manipulation for baby colic, it is not endorsed.[147] Safety Chiropractic adjustment on children The World Health Organization found chiropractic care in general is safe when employed skillfully and appropriately.[54] There is not sufficient data to establish the safety of chiropractic manipulations.[13] Manipulation is regarded as relatively safe but complications can arise, and it has known adverse effects, risks and contraindications.[54] Absolute contraindications to spinal manipulative therapy are conditions that should not be manipulated; these contraindications include rheumatoid arthritis and conditions known to result in unstable joints.[54] Relative contraindications are conditions where increased risk is acceptable in some situations and where low-force and soft-tissue techniques are treatments of choice; these contraindications include osteoporosis.[54] Although most contraindications apply only to manipulation of the affected region, some neurological signs indicate referral to emergency medical services; these include sudden and severe headache or neck pain unlike that previously experienced.[148] Indirect risks of chiropractic involve delayed or missed diagnoses through consulting a chiropractor.[8] Spinal manipulation is associated with frequent, mild and temporary adverse effects,[14][148] including new or worsening pain or stiffness in the affected region.[149] They have been estimated to occur in 33% to 61% of patients, and frequently occur within an hour of treatment and disappear within 24 to 48 hours;[13] adverse reactions appear to be more common following manipulation than mobilization.[150] The most frequently stated adverse effects are mild headache, soreness, and briefly elevated pain fatigue.[151] Chiropractic is correlated with a very high incidence of minor adverse effects.[8] Rarely,[54] spinal manipulation, particularly on the upper spine, can also result in complications that can lead to permanent disability or death; these can occur in adults[14] and children.[152] Estimates vary widely for the incidence of these complications,[13] and the actual incidence is unknown, due to high levels of underreporting and to the difficulty of linking manipulation to adverse effects such as stroke, which is a particular concern.[14] Adverse effects are poorly reported in recent studies investigating chiropractic manipulations.[153] A 2016 systematic review concludes that the level of reporting is unsuitable and unacceptable.[154] Reports of serious adverse events have occurred, resulting from spinal manipulation therapy of the lumbopelvic region.[155] Estimates for serious adverse events vary from 5 strokes per 100,000 manipulations to 1.46 serious adverse events per 10 million manipulations and 2.68 deaths per 10 million manipulations, though it was determined that there was inadequate data to be conclusive.[13] Several case reports show temporal associations between interventions and potentially serious complications.[156] The published medical literature contains reports of 26 deaths since 1934 following chiropractic manipulations and many more seem to remain unpublished.[17] Vertebrobasilar artery stroke (VAS) is statistically associated with chiropractic services in persons under 45 years of age, but it is similarly associated with general practitioner services, suggesting that these associations are likely explained by preexisting conditions.[156][157] Weak to moderately strong evidence supports causation (as opposed to statistical association) between cervical manipulative therapy (CMT) and VAS.[158] There is insufficient evidence to support a strong association or no association between cervical manipulation and stroke.[15] While the biomechanical evidence is not sufficient to support the statement that CMT causes cervical artery dissection (CD), clinical reports suggest that mechanical forces have a part in a substantial number of CDs and the majority of population controlled studies found an association between CMT and VAS in young people.[159] It is strongly recommended that practitioners consider the plausibility of CD as a symptom, and people can be informed of the association between CD and CMT before administrating manipulation of the cervical spine.[159] There is controversy regarding the degree of risk of stroke from cervical manipulation.[15] Many chiropractors state that, the association between chiropractic therapy and vertebral arterial dissection is not proven.[17] However, it has been suggested that the causality between chiropractic cervical manipulation beyond the normal range of motion and vascular accidents is probable[17] or definite.[16] There is very low evidence supporting a small association between internal carotid artery dissection and chiropractic neck manipulation.[160] The incidence of internal carotid artery dissection following cervical spine manipulation is unknown.[161] The literature infrequently reports helpful data to better understand the association between cervical manipulative therapy, cervical artery dissection and stroke.[162] The limited evidence is inconclusive that chiropractic spinal manipulation therapy is not a cause of intracranial hypotension.[163] Cervical intradural disc herniation is very rare following spinal manipulation therapy.[164] Chiropractors, like other primary care providers, sometimes employ diagnostic imaging techniques such as X-rays and CT scans that rely on ionizing radiation.[165] Although there is no clear evidence for the practice, some chiropractors may still X-ray a patient several times a year.[57] Practice guidelines aim to reduce unnecessary radiation exposure,[165] which increases cancer risk in proportion to the amount of radiation received.[166] Research suggests that radiology instruction given at chiropractic schools worldwide seem to be evidence-based.[56] Although, there seems to be a disparity between some schools and available evidence regarding the aspect of radiography for patients with acute low back pain without an indication of a serious disease, which may contribute to chiropractic overuse of radiography for low back pain.[56] Risk-benefit A 2012 systematic review concluded that no accurate assessment of risk-benefit exists for cervical manipulation.[15] A 2010 systematic review stated that there is no good evidence to assume that neck manipulation is an effective treatment for any medical condition and suggested a precautionary principle in healthcare for chiropractic intervention even if a causality with vertebral artery dissection after neck manipulation were merely a remote possibility.[17] The same review concluded that the risk of death from manipulations to the neck outweighs the benefits.[17] Chiropractors have criticized this conclusion, claiming that the author did not evaluate the potential benefits of spinal manipulation.[167] Edzard Ernst stated "This detail was not the subject of my review. I do, however, refer to such evaluations and should add that a report recently commissioned by the General Chiropractic Council did not support many of the outlandish claims made by many chiropractors across the world."[167] A 2009 review evaluating maintenance chiropractic care found that spinal manipulation is associated with considerable harm and no compelling evidence exists to indicate that it adequately prevents symptoms or diseases, thus the risk-benefit is not evidently favorable.[12] Cost-effectiveness A 2012 systematic review suggested that the use of spine manipulation in clinical practice is a cost-effective treatment when used alone or in combination with other treatment approaches.[168] A 2011 systematic review found evidence supporting the cost-effectiveness of using spinal manipulation for the treatment of sub-acute or chronic low back pain; the results for acute low back pain were insufficient.[11] A 2006 systematic cost-effectiveness review found that the reported cost-effectiveness of spinal manipulation in the United Kingdom compared favorably with other treatments for back pain, but that reports were based on data from clinical trials without placebo controls and that the specific cost-effectiveness of the treatment (as opposed to non-specific effects) remains uncertain.[169] A 2005 American systematic review of economic evaluations of conservative treatments for low back pain found that significant quality problems in available studies meant that definite conclusions could not be drawn about the most cost-effective intervention.[170] The cost-effectiveness of maintenance chiropractic care is unknown.[106][non-primary source needed] Analysis of a clinical and cost utilization data from the years 2003 to 2005 by an integrative medicine independent physician association (IPA) which looked the chiropractic services utilization found that the clinical and cost utilization of chiropractic services based on 70,274 member-months over a 7-year period decreased patient costs associate with the following use of services by 60% for in-hospital admissions, 59% for hospital days, 62% for outpatient surgeries and procedures, and 85% for pharmaceutical costs when compared with conventional medicine (visit to a medical doctor primary care provider) IPA performance for the same health maintenance organization product in the same geography and time frame.[171] Education, licensing, and regulation Main articles: Chiropractic education and List of chiropractic schools Requirements vary between countries. In the U.S. chiropractors obtain a non-medical accredited diploma in the field of chiropractic.[172] Chiropractic education in the U.S. has been criticized for failing to meet generally accepted standards of evidence-based medicine.[173] The curriculum content of North American chiropractic and medical colleges with regard to basic and clinical sciences has little similarity, both in the kinds of subjects offered and in the time assigned to each subject.[174] Accredited chiropractic programs in the U.S. require that applicants have 90 semester hours of undergraduate education with a grade point average of at least 3.0 on a 4.0 scale. Many programs require at least three years of undergraduate education, and more are requiring a bachelor's degree.[175] Canada requires a minimum three years of undergraduate education for applicants, and at least 4200 instructional hours (or the equivalent) of full‐time chiropractic education for matriculation through an accredited chiropractic program.[176] Graduates of the Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College (CMCC) are formally recognized to have at least 7–8 years of university level education.[177][178] The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines suggest three major full-time educational paths culminating in either a DC, DCM, BSc, or MSc degree. Besides the full-time paths, they also suggest a conversion program for people with other health care education and limited training programs for regions where no legislation governs chiropractic.[54] Upon graduation, there may be a requirement to pass national, state, or provincial board examinations before being licensed to practice in a particular jurisdiction.[179][180] Depending on the location, continuing education may be required to renew these licenses.[181][182] Specialty training is available through part-time postgraduate education programs such as chiropractic orthopedics and sports chiropractic, and through full-time residency programs such as radiology or orthopedics.[183] In the U.S., chiropractic schools are accredited through the Council on Chiropractic Education (CCE) while the General Chiropractic Council (GCC) is the statutory governmental body responsible for the regulation of chiropractic in the UK.[184][185] The U.S. CCE requires a mixing curriculum, which means a straight-educated chiropractor may not be eligible for licensing in states requiring CCE accreditation.[76] CCEs in the U.S., Canada, Australia and Europe have joined to form CCE-International (CCE-I) as a model of accreditation standards with the goal of having credentials portable internationally.[186] Today, there are 18 accredited Doctor of Chiropractic programs in the U.S.,[187] 2 in Canada,[188] 6 in Australasia,[189] and 5 in Europe.[190] All but one of the chiropractic colleges in the U.S. are privately funded, but in several other countries they are in government-sponsored universities and colleges.[25] Of the two chiropractic colleges in Canada, one is publicly funded (UQTR) and one is privately funded (CMCC). In 2005, CMCC was granted the privilege of offering a professional health care degree under the Post-secondary Education Choice and Excellence Act, which sets the program within the hierarchy of education in Canada as comparable to that of other primary contact health care professions such as medicine, dentistry and optometry.[177][178] Regulatory colleges and chiropractic boards in the U.S., Canada, Mexico, and Australia are responsible for protecting the public, standards of practice, disciplinary issues, quality assurance and maintenance of competency.[191][192] There are an estimated 49,000 chiropractors in the U.S. (2008),[193] 6,500 in Canada (2010),[194] 2,500 in Australia (2000),[29] and 1,500 in the UK (2000).[195] Chiropractors often argue that this education is as good as or better than medical physicians', but most chiropractic training is confined to classrooms with much time spent learning theory, adjustment, and marketing.[76] The fourth year of chiropractic education persistently showed the highest stress levels.[196] Every student, irrespective of year, experienced different ranges of stress when studying.[196] The chiropractic leaders and colleges have had internal struggles.[197] Rather than cooperation, there has been infighting between different factions.[197] A number of actions were posturing due to the confidential nature of the chiropractic colleges in an attempt to enroll students.[197][clarification needed] Ethics Main article: Chiropractic professional ethics The chiropractic oath is a modern variation of the classical Hippocratic Oath historically taken by physicians and other healthcare professionals swearing to practice their professions ethically.[198] The American Chiropractic Association (ACA) has an ethical code "based upon the acknowledgement that the social contract dictates the profession's responsibilities to the patient, the public, and the profession; and upholds the fundamental principle that the paramount purpose of the chiropractic doctor's professional services shall be to benefit the patient."[199] The International Chiropractor's Association (ICA) also has a set of professional canons.[200] A 2008 commentary proposed that the chiropractic profession actively regulate itself to combat abuse, fraud, and quackery, which are more prevalent in chiropractic than in other health care professions, violating the social contract between patients and physicians.[36] According to a 2015 Gallup poll of U.S. adults, the perception of chiropractors is generally favorable; two-thirds of American adults agree that chiropractors have their patient's best interest in mind and more than half also agree that most chiropractors are trustworthy. Less than 10% of US adults disagreed with the statement that chiropractors were trustworthy.[201][202] The charity Sense About Science launched a campaign to draw attention to the BCA legal case against science writer Simon Singh.[203] In 2009, a number of organizations and public figures signed a statement entitled "The law has no place in scientific disputes".[204] Chiropractors, especially in America, have a reputation for unnecessarily treating patients.[57] In many circumstances the focus seems to be put on economics instead of health care.[57] Sustained chiropractic care is promoted as a preventive tool, but unnecessary manipulation could possibly present a risk to patients.[8] Some chiropractors are concerned by the routine unjustified claims chiropractors have made.[8] A 2010 analysis of chiropractic websites found the majority of chiropractors and their associations made claims of effectiveness not supported by scientific evidence, while 28% of chiropractor websites advocate lower back pain care, which has some sound evidence.[205] The US Office of the Inspector General (OIG) estimated that for calendar year 2013, 82% of payments to chiropractors under Medicare Part B, a total of $359 million, did not comply with Medicare requirements.[206] There have been at least 15 OIG reports about chiropractic billing irregularities since 1986.[206] In 2009, a backlash to the libel suit filed by the British Chiropractic Association (BCA) against Simon Singh inspired the filing of formal complaints of false advertising against more than 500 individual chiropractors within one 24-hour period,[207][208] prompting the McTimoney Chiropractic Association to write to its members advising them to remove leaflets that make claims about whiplash and colic from their practice, to be wary of new patients and telephone inquiries, and telling their members: "If you have a website, take it down NOW" and "Finally, we strongly suggest you do NOT discuss this with others, especially patients."[207] An editorial in Nature suggested that the BCA may have been trying to suppress debate and that this use of English libel law was a burden on the right to freedom of expression, which is protected by the European Convention on Human Rights.[209] The libel case ended with the BCA withdrawing its suit in 2010.[210][211] Reception Chiropractic is established in the U.S., Canada, and Australia, and is present to a lesser extent in many other countries.[18] It is viewed as a marginal and non-clinically–proven attempt at complementary and alternative medicine, which has not integrated into mainstream medicine.[64] Billions are spent annually for chiropractic services.[8] Australia In Australia, there are approximately 2488 chiropractors, or one chiropractor for every 7980 people.[212] Most private health insurance funds in Australia cover chiropractic care, and the federal government funds chiropractic care when the patient is referred by a medical practitioner.[213] In 2014, the chiropractic profession had a registered workforce of 4,684 practitioners in Australia represented by two major organizations — the Chiropractors’ Association of Australia (CAA) and the Chiropractic and Osteopathic College of Australasia (COCA).[214] Annual expenditure on chiropractic care (alone or combined with osteopathy) in Australia is estimated to be between AUD$750–988 million with musculoskeletal complaints such as back and neck pain making up the bulk of consultations; and proportional expenditure is similar to that found in other countries.[214] While Medicare (the Australian publicly funded universal health care system) coverage of chiropractic services is limited to only those directed by a medical referral to assist chronic disease management, most private health insurers in Australia do provide partial reimbursement for a wider range of chiropractic services in addition to limited third party payments for workers compensation and motor vehicle accidents.[214] Of the 2,005 chiropractors who participated in a 2015 survey, 62.4% were male and the average age was 42.1 (SD = 12.1) years.[214] Nearly all chiropractors (97.1%) had a bachelor's degree or higher, with the majority of chiropractor's highest professional qualification being a bachelor or double bachelor's degree (34.6%), followed by a master's degree (32.7%), Doctor of Chiropractic (28.9%) or PhD (0.9%).[214] Only a small number of chiropractor's highest professional qualification was a diploma (2.1%) or advanced diploma (0.8%).[214] United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, there are over 2,000 chiropractors, representing one chiropractor per 29,206 people.[212] Chiropractic is available on the National Health Service in some areas, such as Cornwall, where the treatment is only available for neck or back pain.[215] A 2010 study by questionnaire presented to UK chiropractors indicated only 45% of chiropractors disclosed to patients the serious risk associated with manipulation of the cervical spine and that 46% believed there was possibility patients would refuse treatment if the risks were correctly explained. However 80% acknowledged the ethical/moral responsibility to disclose risk to patients.[216] United States and Canada The percentage of the population that utilizes chiropractic care at any given time generally falls into a range from 6% to 12% in the U.S. and Canada,[217] with a global high of 20% in Alberta in 2006.[218] In 2008, chiropractors were reported to be the most common CAM providers for children and adolescents, these patients representing up to 14% of all visits to chiropractors.[219] There were around 50,330 chiropractors practicing in North America in 2000.[212] In 2008, this has increased by almost 20% to around 60,000 chiropractors.[8] In 2002–03, the majority of those who sought chiropractic did so for relief from back and neck pain and other neuromusculoskeletal complaints;[20] most do so specifically for low back pain.[20][217] The majority of U.S. chiropractors participate in some form of managed care.[9] Although the majority of U.S. chiropractors view themselves as specialists in neuromusculoskeletal conditions, many also consider chiropractic as a type of primary care.[9] In the majority of cases, the care that chiropractors and physicians provide divides the market, however for some, their care is complementary.[9] In the U.S., chiropractors perform over 90% of all manipulative treatments.[220] Satisfaction rates are typically higher for chiropractic care compared to medical care, with a 1998 U.S. survey reporting 83% of respondents satisfied or very satisfied with their care; quality of communication seems to be a consistent predictor of patient satisfaction with chiropractors.[221] Utilization of chiropractic care is sensitive to the costs incurred by the co-payment by the patient.[1] The use of chiropractic declined from 9.9% of U.S. adults in 1997 to 7.4% in 2002; this was the largest relative decrease among CAM professions, which overall had a stable use rate.[222] As of 2007 7% of the U.S. population is being reached by chiropractic.[223] They were the third largest medical profession in the US in 2002, following physicians and dentists.[224] Employment of U.S. chiropractors was expected to increase 14% between 2006 and 2016, faster than the average for all occupations.[193] In the U.S., most states require insurers to cover chiropractic care, and most HMOs cover these services.[219] History Main article: History of chiropractic Daniel David (D.D.) Palmer, founder of Chiropractic Chiropractic's origins lie in the folk medicine practice of bonesetting, in which untrained practitioners engaged in joint manipulation or resetting fractured bones.[8] Chiropractic was founded in 1895 by Daniel David (D.D.) Palmer in Davenport, Iowa. Palmer, a magnetic healer, hypothesized that manual manipulation of the spine could cure disease.[225] The first chiropractic patient of D.D. Palmer was Harvey Lillard, a worker in the building where Palmer's office was located.[42] He claimed that he had severely reduced hearing for 17 years, which started soon following a "pop" in his spine.[42] A few days following his adjustment, Lillard claimed his hearing was almost completely restored.[42] Another of Palmer's patients, Samuel Weed, coined the term chiropractic, from the Greek χειρο- chiro- (itself from χείρ cheir "hand"), "hand" and πρακτικός praktikos, "practical".[226][227] Chiropractic is classified as a field of pseudomedicine on account of its esoteric origins.[3] Chiropractic competed with its predecessor osteopathy, another medical system based on magnetic healing; both systems were founded by charismatic midwesterners in opposition to the conventional medicine of the day, and both postulated that manipulation improved health.[225] Although initially keeping chiropractic a family secret, in 1898 Palmer began teaching it to a few students at his new Palmer School of Chiropractic.[22] One student, his son Bartlett Joshua (B.J.) Palmer, became committed to promoting chiropractic, took over the Palmer School in 1906, and rapidly expanded its enrollment.[22] Early chiropractors believed that all disease was caused by interruptions in the flow of innate intelligence, a vitalistic nervous energy or life force that represented God's presence in man; chiropractic leaders often invoked religious imagery and moral traditions.[22] D.D. Palmer said he "received chiropractic from the other world".[23] D.D. and B.J. both seriously considered declaring chiropractic a religion, which might have provided legal protection under the U.S. constitution, but decided against it partly to avoid confusion with Christian Science.[22][23] Early chiropractors also tapped into the Populist movement, emphasizing craft, hard work, competition, and advertisement, aligning themselves with the common man against intellectuals and trusts, among which they included the American Medical Association (AMA).[22] B. J. Palmer, early developer of chiropractic Chiropractic has seen considerable controversy and criticism.[25][26] Although D.D. and B.J. were "straight" and disdained the use of instruments, some early chiropractors, whom B.J. scornfully called "mixers", advocated the use of instruments.[22] In 1910, B.J. changed course and endorsed X-rays as necessary for diagnosis; this resulted in a significant exodus from the Palmer School of the more conservative faculty and students.[22] The mixer camp grew until by 1924 B.J. estimated that only 3,000 of the U.S.'s 25,000 chiropractors remained straight.[22] That year, B.J.'s invention and promotion of the neurocalometer, a temperature-sensing device, was highly controversial among B.J.'s fellow straights. By the 1930s, chiropractic was the largest alternative healing profession in the U.S.[22] Harvey Lillard, first chiropractic patient Chiropractors faced heavy opposition from organized medicine.[42] DD Palmer was jailed in 1907 for practicing medicine without a license.[228] Thousands of chiropractors were prosecuted for practicing medicine without a license, and D.D. and many other chiropractors were jailed.[42] To defend against medical statutes, B.J. argued that chiropractic was separate and distinct from medicine, asserting that chiropractors "analyzed" rather than "diagnosed", and "adjusted" subluxations rather than "treated" disease.[42] B.J. cofounded the Universal Chiropractors' Association (UCA) to provide legal services to arrested chiropractors.[42] Although the UCA won their first test case in Wisconsin in 1907, prosecutions instigated by state medical boards became increasingly common and in many cases were successful. In response, chiropractors conducted political campaigns to secure separate licensing statutes, eventually succeeding in all fifty states, from Kansas in 1913 through Louisiana in 1974.[42] The longstanding feud between chiropractors and medical doctors continued for decades. The AMA labeled chiropractic an "unscientific cult" in 1966,[30] and until 1980 advised its members that it was unethical for medical doctors to associate with "unscientific practitioners".[229] This culminated in a landmark 1987 decision, Wilk v. AMA, in which the court found that the AMA had engaged in unreasonable restraint of trade and conspiracy, and which ended the AMA's de facto boycott of chiropractic.[9] Serious research to test chiropractic theories did not begin until the 1970s, and is continuing to be hampered by antiscientific and pseudoscientific ideas that sustained the profession in its long battle with organized medicine.[42] By the mid 1990s there was a growing scholarly interest in chiropractic, which helped efforts to improve service quality and establish clinical guidelines that recommended manual therapies for acute low back pain.[42] In recent decades chiropractic gained legitimacy and greater acceptance by medical physicians and health plans, and enjoyed a strong political base and sustained demand for services.[9] However, its future seemed uncertain: as the number of practitioners grew, evidence-based medicine insisted on treatments with demonstrated value, managed care restricted payment, and competition grew from massage therapists and other health professions.[9] The profession responded by marketing natural products and devices more aggressively, and by reaching deeper into alternative medicine and primary care.[9] Public health Further information: Vaccine controversy § Alternative medicine, and Water fluoridation controversy Some chiropractors oppose vaccination and water fluoridation, which are common public health practices.[36] Within the chiropractic community there are significant disagreements about vaccination, one of the most cost-effective public health interventions available.[230] Most chiropractic writings on vaccination focus on its negative aspects,[28] claiming that it is hazardous, ineffective, and unnecessary.[29] Some chiropractors have embraced vaccination, but a significant portion of the profession rejects it, as original chiropractic philosophy traces diseases to causes in the spine and states that vaccines interfere with healing.[29] The extent to which anti-vaccination views perpetuate the current chiropractic profession is uncertain.[28] The American Chiropractic Association and the International Chiropractors Association support individual exemptions to compulsory vaccination laws, and a 1995 survey of U.S. chiropractors found that about a third believed there was no scientific proof that immunization prevents disease.[29] The Canadian Chiropractic Association supports vaccination;[28] a survey in Alberta in 2002 found that 25% of chiropractors advised patients for, and 27% against, vaccinating themselves or their children.[231] Many even reject the fact that smallpox has been eradicated and they believe it was renamed monkeypox.[231] Early opposition to water fluoridation included chiropractors, some of whom continue to oppose it as being incompatible with chiropractic philosophy and an infringement of personal freedom. Other chiropractors have actively promoted fluoridation, and several chiropractic organizations have endorsed scientific principles of public health.[232] In addition to traditional chiropractic opposition to water fluoridation and vaccination, chiropractors' attempts to establish a positive reputation for their public health role are also compromised by their reputation for recommending repetitive lifelong chiropractic treatment.[36] Controversy Main article: Chiropractic controversy and criticism Throughout its history chiropractic has been the subject of internal and external controversy and criticism.[21][233] According to Daniel D. Palmer, the founder of chiropractic, subluxation is the sole cause of disease and manipulation is the cure for all diseases of the human race.[8][50] A 2003 profession-wide survey[43] found "most chiropractors (whether 'straights' or 'mixers') still hold views of innate intelligence and of the cause and cure of disease (not just back pain) consistent with those of the Palmers."[234] A critical evaluation stated "Chiropractic is rooted in mystical concepts. This led to an internal conflict within the chiropractic profession, which continues today."[8] Chiropractors, including D.D. Palmer, were jailed for practicing medicine without a license.[8] For most of its existence, chiropractic has battled with mainstream medicine, sustained by antiscientific and pseudoscientific ideas such as subluxation.[42] Collectively, systematic reviews have not demonstrated that spinal manipulation, the main treatment method employed by chiropractors, is effective for any medical condition, with the possible exception of treatment for back pain.[8] Chiropractic remains controversial, though to a lesser extent than in past years.[25] See also icon Medicine portal List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Chiropractic education Chiropractic schools Councils on Chiropractic Education International Toftness device World Federation of Chiropractic References Chapman-Smith DA, Cleveland CS III (2005). "International status, standards, and education of the chiropractic profession". In Haldeman S, Dagenais S, Budgell B, et al. (eds.). Principles and Practice of Chiropractic (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 111–34. ISBN 978-0-07-137534-4. Nelson CF, Lawrence DJ, Triano JJ, Bronfort G, Perle SM, Metz RD, Hegetschweiler K, LaBrot T (2005). "Chiropractic as spine care: a model for the profession". Chiropractic & Osteopathy. 13 (1): 9. doi:10.1186/1746-1340-13-9. PMC 1185558. PMID 16000175. Swanson ES (2015). "Pseudoscience". Science and Society: Understanding Scientific Methodology, Energy, Climate, and Sustainability. Springer. p. 65. ISBN 978-3-319-21987-5. For an explanation regarding the description of chiropractic as a pseudoscience, see: Singh, Simon; Ernst, Edzard (2008). "The Truth About Chiropractic Therapy". Trick or Treatment? Alternative Medicine on Trial. London: Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06129-9. OCLC 190777228. Hall, Harriet (March 11, 2008). "Science and Chiropractic". sciencebasedmedicine.org. New England Skeptical Society. Archived from the original on May 12, 2019. Retrieved 2020-02-15. Hansson, Sven Ove (2017-06-01). "Science denial as a form of pseudoscience". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. 63: 39–47. doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2017.05.002. ISSN 0039-3681. PMID 28629651. Ernst, Edzard (2009-04-01). "Complementary/alternative medicine: engulfed by postmodernism, anti-science and regressive thinking". The British Journal of General Practice. 59 (561): 298–301. doi:10.3399/bjgp09X420482. ISSN 0960-1643. PMC 2662117. PMID 19341568. Hall, Harriet (May 2020). "Applied kinesiology and other chiropractic delusions". Skeptical Inquirer. 44 (3): 21–23. Novella, Steven (March 22, 2017). "Cracking Down on Chiropractic Pseudoscience". sciencebasedmedicine.org. New England Skeptical Society. Archived from the original on December 19, 2019. Retrieved 2019-12-19. Williams, William F. (2000). Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy. Facts on File Inc. p. 51. ISBN 1-57958-207-9 Mootz RD, Shekelle PG (1997). "Content of practice". In Cherkin DC, Mootz RD (eds.). Chiropractic in the United States: Training, Practice, and Research. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. pp. 67–91. OCLC 39856366. AHCPR Pub No. 98-N002. "The DC as PCP? Drug Wars Resume – Science-Based Medicine". sciencebasedmedicine.org. 2019-12-18. Archived from the original on 2019-12-18. Retrieved 2020-03-27. Bellamy, Jann (December 20, 2018). "Legislative Alchemy 2018: Chiropractors rebranding as primary care physicians continues". sciencebasedmedicine.org. Archived from the original on December 19, 2019. Retrieved 2019-12-18. Ernst E (May 2008). "Chiropractic: a critical evaluation". Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 35 (5): 544–62. doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2007.07.004. PMID 18280103. Cooper RA, McKee HJ (2003). "Chiropractic in the United States: trends and issues". Milbank Quarterly. 81 (1): 107–38, table of contents. doi:10.1111/1468-0009.00040. PMC 2690192. PMID 12669653. Posadzki P, Ernst E (2011). "Spinal manipulation: an update of a systematic review of systematic reviews". The New Zealand Medical Journal. 124 (1340): 55–71. PMID 21952385. Lin CW, Haas M, Maher CG, Machado LA, van Tulder MW (2011). "Cost-effectiveness of guideline-endorsed treatments for low back pain: a systematic review". European Spine Journal. 20 (7): 1024–38. doi:10.1007/s00586-010-1676-3. PMC 3176706. PMID 21229367. Ernst E (2009). "Chiropractic maintenance treatment, a useful preventative approach?". Preventive Medicine. 49 (2–3): 99–100. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2009.05.004. PMID 19465044. Gouveia LO, Castanho P, Ferreira JJ (2009). "Safety of chiropractic interventions: a systematic review" (PDF). Spine. 34 (11): E405–13. doi:10.1097/BRS.0b013e3181a16d63. PMID 19444054. S2CID 21279308. Ernst E (2007). "Adverse effects of spinal manipulation: a systematic review". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 100 (7): 330–38. doi:10.1258/jrsm.100.7.330. PMC 1905885. PMID 17606755. Archived from the original on 2010-05-16. Lay summary – Med News Today (2007-07-02). Haynes MJ, Vincent K, Fischhoff C, Bremner AP, Lanlo O, Hankey GJ (2012). "Assessing the risk of stroke from neck manipulation: a systematic review". International Journal of Clinical Practice. 66 (10): 940–47. doi:10.1111/j.1742-1241.2012.03004.x. PMC 3506737. PMID 22994328. Ernst E (2010). "Vascular accidents after neck manipulation: cause or coincidence?". International Journal of Clinical Practice. 64 (6): 673–77. doi:10.1111/j.1742-1241.2009.02237.x. PMID 20518945. S2CID 38571730. Ernst E (2010). "Deaths after chiropractic: a review of published cases". International Journal of Clinical Practice. 64 (8): 1162–65. doi:10.1111/j.1742-1241.2010.02352.x. PMID 20642715. S2CID 45225661. Tetrault M (2004). "Global professional strategy for chiropractic" (PDF). Chiropractic Diplomatic Corps. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-25. Retrieved 2008-04-18. Norris P (2001). 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In the letter, he often refers to himself with royal third person terminology and also as "Old Dad". Lazarus, David (June 30, 2017). Column: Chiropractic treatment, a $15-billion industry, has its roots in a ghost story. Archived July 19, 2020, at the Wayback Machine --- "Daniel David Palmer, the 'father' of chiropractic who performed the first chiropractic adjustment in 1895, was an avid spiritualist. He maintained that the notion and basic principles of chiropractic treatment were passed along to him during a seance by a long-dead doctor. 'The knowledge and philosophy given me by Dr. Jim Atkinson, an intelligent spiritual being ... appealed to my reason,' Palmer wrote in his memoir The Chiropractor, which was published in 1914 after his death in Los Angeles. Atkinson had died 50 years prior to Palmer's epiphany." Los Angeles Times. Retrieved: September 25, 2019. DeVocht JW (2006). "History and overview of theories and methods of chiropractic: a counterpoint". 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Chiropractors' tendency to assert the meaningfulness of various theories and methods as a counterpoint to allopathic charges of quackery has created a defensiveness which can make critical examination of chiropractic concepts difficult (Keating and Mootz 1989). One example of this conundrum is the continuing controversy about the presumptive target of DCs' adjustive interventions: subluxation (Gatterman 1995; Leach 1994). Busse JW, Morgan L, Campbell JB (2005). "Chiropractic antivaccination arguments". Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics. 28 (5): 367–73. doi:10.1016/j.jmpt.2005.04.011. PMID 15965414. Campbell JB, Busse JW, Injeyan HS (2000). "Chiropractors and vaccination: a historical perspective". Pediatrics. 105 (4): e43. doi:10.1542/peds.105.4.e43. PMID 10742364. Johnson C, Baird R, Dougherty PE, Globe G, Green BN, Haneline M, Hawk C, Injeyan HS, Killinger L, Kopansky-Giles D, Lisi AJ, Mior SA, Smith M (2008). 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Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. pp. 9–16. OCLC 39856366. AHCPR Pub No. 98-N002. Murphy DR, Schneider MJ, Seaman DR, Perle SM, Nelson CF (Aug 2008). "How can chiropractic become a respected mainstream profession? The example of podiatry" (PDF). Chiropractic & Osteopathy. 16: 10. doi:10.1186/1746-1340-16-10. PMC 2538524. PMID 18759966. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-25. Retrieved 2008-09-16. Gay RE, Nelson CF (2003). "Chiropractic philosophy". In Wainapel SF, Fast A (eds.). Alternative Medicine and Rehabilitation: a Guide for Practitioners. New York: Demos Medical Publishing. ISBN 978-1-888799-66-8. "Chiropractic". NHS Choices. 20 August 2014. Retrieved 19 September 2016. Freeman J (February 2005). "Towards a definition of holism". The British Journal of General Practice. 55 (511): 154–55. PMC 1463203. PMID 15720949. Martin Gardner (1 June 1957). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Courier Corporation. pp. 227–. ISBN 978-0-486-20394-2. Raso J (1997). "Dictionary of Metaphysical Healthcare – Glossary". Quackwatch. Retrieved 12 February 2016. Keating JC Jr; Cleveland CS III; Menke M (2005). "Chiropractic history: a primer" (PDF). Association for the History of Chiropractic. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-04-24. Retrieved 2008-06-16. McDonald WP, Durkin KF, Pfefer M, et al. (2003). How Chiropractors Think and Practice: The Survey of North American Chiropractors. Ada, OH: Institute for Social Research, Ohio Northern University. ISBN 978-0-9728055-5-1.[page needed] Summarized in: McDonald WP, Durkin KF, Pfefer M (2004). "How chiropractors think and practice: the survey of North American chiropractors". Seminars in Integrative Medicine. 2 (3): 92–8. doi:10.1016/j.sigm.2004.07.002. Lay summary – Dyn Chiropr (2003-06-02). Smith M, Carber LA (2008). "Survey of US Chiropractor Attitudes and Behaviors about Subluxation" (PDF). Journal of Chiropractic Humanities. 15: 19–26. doi:10.1016/s1556-3499(13)60166-7. 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